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IN SEARCH OF REALITY VIII




Social Mechanisms








A study in thought







by







Marius Heuff

@M.Heuff

Chapter 1

Content

The conceptual nature of the world of conscious awareness.
The fallacy of our sense of individual uniqueness.
The cultural pool of concepts, ideas, notions and attitudes.
The role of solitude and meditation.
The need to recognise an idea or concept before it can be useful.

1 Our world of conscious awarenesses is filled with concepts and ideas that are shared with other members of our social environment and the culture of our up-bringing, and, we may consider the social environment to be a "common pool" of ideas from where we, individual members, have drawn our conceptual contents. What we have drawn from this pool is, obviously, only a part of the available repertoir, and, there are no two people within a social environment, who have drawn an identical conceptual content. In addition to a pool of verbalised concepts and ideas, every society has, also, a large, commonly shared repertoir of notions, attitudes and behaviour patterns, which are not verbalisable to any significant extent. The meaning and definition of these notions and attitudes are vague and they are, therefore, quite varied.

2 A concept that recognises the "cultural pool" of society as a receptacle for all the ideas, notions, concepts and attitudes that are current within a particular social environment, has important implications, since it casts doubt on any concept that considers an individual in society as a sharply delineated entity. Let me explain. We may have the feeling, or the impression, that our thoughts, desires, attitudes, sorrows and frustrations are deeply and uniquely our own, and, we may be convinced, that they hold the key to our experience of individuality, but we can easily demonstrate, that we have contributed, ourselves, very little to these feelings and perceptions, nor to the ideas and concepts we cherish so much as a manifestation of our own, specific personality.

3 Certainly, these feelings arise from our own existence as a living human being, but the recognition and verbalisation of these feelings have been taken from the conceptual or cultural pool of the social environment. It happens, from time to time, that an individual contributes, indeed, to the formulation of a new idea, or, gives a name to a new conceptual entity, but, such an occurrence is rare. Most of us work entirely with an established conceptual vocabulary, and those of us, who are fortunate enough to make a contribution, still work, largely, with well-established concepts and ideas.

4 Besides, a contribution becomes only acknowledged as an ideological or conceptual enrichment of the communal pool of shared ideas, if it reflects a more precise articulation of a pre-existing and commonly held, pre-conceptual feeling or "notion". In addition, the new concept or idea still has to be expressed with the conceptual tools that are available in the common idea-pool of the social environment, and, therefore, all our personal ideas and feelings are expressed with tools or techniques we have learned and taken-over from the cultural environment.

5 Similarities in behavioural reactions between the members of a social entity are, therefore, based upon two factors. First of all, there exists an underlying organic or physiological and anatomical similarity of all human beings, which is the result of a common genetic heritage. Secondly, we see, that the format and expression of basic human reactions, attitudes and ideas have taken their characteristics from a cultural pool that is shared by the members of a specific social environment. These characteristics include the language we use, the attitudes, beliefs and prejudices we make use of when responding to typical sense impressions, etc. In short, we exist, by and large, within a complex of learned stereotypes of behaviour and communication patterns.

6 We see, then, that none of us would be able to speak, think or act, without having acquired these tools from an often varied and loosely organised cultural pool of ideas and word-symbols, and, we may come to the conclusion, that, even our most intimate or personal feelings, our most individualised opinions and behaviour patterns, are only accidental specifics of our particular circumstances, which are merely variations from a common plan or blue-print for all human existence. Our particular accidental specifics are expressed in the cultural currency of the society we have been born into. The whole field of what we know, what we think and feel, is, therefore, expressed in a language, or, a currency of symbolic representations, which depends, not only, upon contact with others, but, its actual existence as a conceptualised, verbalisable imagery is, in essence, based on an act of communication.

7 You may argue, that we often live and exist in complete privacy and solitude. As a matter of fact, we often prefer and need such a situation of privacy in order to relax and orden our thought patterns. Very true, we need these periods of sheltered existence, where we can digest and sort-out our experiences, but we could not have had this capability or need to reflect, if we had not grown-up in an atmosphere of almost continuous contact with other people. Besides, after a short period of solitary meditation and relaxation, we are likely to experience a desire to communicate, once again, be it in a direct contact with our friends, or, by interacting with the recorded utterings and writings of other people, whose works are grouped together in the various forms of art and thought we have become familiar with.

8 I would like to take this idea a step further, and state, that any form of conceptualisation, any type of knowledge, exists, in essence, only as a form of communication or dialogue. I may think what I will, but, in essence, my writing is a dialogue with you, the reader, and the validity of all my ideas, depends on the response of an audience. If no-one would recognise these utterances as making any sense, my ideas would remain as dead as inorganic matter, and yet, the fact, that these ideas have been recorded in the form of a written text, introduces the possibility, that, at a later date, the meaning of these concepts may be perceived and re-created by a living individual, long after I have passed away into a state of non-existence.

9 The sharpening of concepts and ideas through a process of dialogue is such a common experience, that we do not have to elaborate this phenomenon. All these considerations point to the essentially communal nature of the world of mental images. Even the concepts of individuality, as well as the abstractions of the deepest feelings of love and hate, beauty and honour, would not exist, if they had not been conceptualised and abstracted as conscious awarenesses through the mechanisms of contact and dialogue. This is the reason, why these concepts exist, now, as as a communal pool of ideas. We are referring, here, to the cultural pool or legacy of a specific social environment, which has been created by a group of people who are, or were, living together.

10 We have to come to the conclusion that our existence, perhaps, not so much in a physical sense, but, certainly, in a mental or psychological sphere, is only possible, if we form a physical-chemical "living pillar" for this communal network, or pool, of understanding, with its myriad of attitudes, ideas and images, notions and feelings.

11 The isolated existence of a contemplative individual is only possible, after a prolonged period of nourishment from this communal cultural pool, and, on reflection, it becomes clear, that meditation in solitude is not at all a purely isolated existence. It has many features of a communication; be it a communication with nature, or, the world of books and other records of human activities. Even the act of praying to God is a form of communication that exists as an activity of individualised mental imagination, but the content of this imagery has been taken from the communal pool as a belief or a concept, and, it is being communicated during the act of prayer. Living a solitary existence is often used as a means of sustaining the intense quality of such an imagery of religious communication, since it requires an intense mental effort, and, it has to be strongly supported by the absence of distracting impulses; either from the environment, or from personal existential needs.

12 Certainly, the human mind needs periods of rest and relaxation in order to digest thought-patterns, integrate emotional experiences and past behavioural reactions, and, above all, the human being needs a period of rest and relaxation to re-arrange his complex, mostly sub-conscious goal-patterns and reality perceptions. This applies, in particular, to the mature and conceptually fully saturated individual, who has been filled to the brim with a rich variety of contrasting and often confusing sense impressions. Since the basic, harmonising features of one`s existence are not easily visible in the hurried existence of communal life, and, because many of the deep and fundamental realities are expressed silently, in common attitudes, taboos, sanctities and prejudices, the human mind needs such periods of solitary reflection to give them form and place them into a workable perspective.

13 However, ideas, arising from a process of individualised reflection, have a chance to become part of this communal pool of ideas, only, if they find, at least, some response amongst the other members of society. Then, a new idea, or, rather, the recent formulation of a pre-existing feeling or notion begins to take a modest place within the hierarchy of culturally transmitted ideas and concepts. A new idea remains, essentially, "unborn", unless it becomes, to some extent, recognised as valid by others, even, if the group in which such an idea starts to circulate, is quite small.

14 Credibility and authority become enormously enhanced, if an idea spreads widely through a community, and, such an idea or concept may become, eventually, invested with a measure of sanctity. A new belief has then been born, but, it must, at all times, be supported with a certain intensity, by a sufficiently large number of people, in order to maintain its exalted position as a "truth".

15 The nature of our personal identity, our personal psychological constitution, as well as the technical means for our expressive capabilities, are such, that the limits and boundaries of a personality fade into, or merge with, this common pool of notions, ideas and awarenesses. We could call this common pool of awarenesses the "noosphere", or, "awareness-sphere" of a culturally integrated grouping.

16 We can not really equate our physical identity and clear-cut organic unity with a similar degree of separate existence in the mental or psychological sphere; rather, we form a linked, psychological network, because we are linked in the shared imagery of our mental functions, our concepts and our attitudes.

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Chapter 2

Content

The pool of common notions and emotions.
The basic distinction between positive and negative stimuli.
Complex and contradictory stimuli.

1 A pool of concepts that is available to, and used by, the members of a community, emphasises the idea of a verbalisable reservoir of symbols, elaborated and transmitted by interhuman contacts. In addition, we have to consider the exchange or communication of a much vaguer and broader category of partially verbalisable notions, feelings and sentiments, which we may summarise in an equally vague concept of "attitude".

2 Undoubtedly, the communication of moods and attitudes preceded, by far, the more precise communication of conceptualised ideas. Out of this common pool of subconscious, communicable feelings and attitudes, rises, slowly, by a process of crystallisation or concretisation, a more specific, verbalisable awareness. Yet, it still remains difficult to define an attitude with precision, and, even at our present level of abstracting capabilities, many notions remain vague and are difficult to bring under words.

3 As a summarising idea, we may call this entire sub-verbal field of notions, a communication of emotions, or, an emotionally determined posture or attitude. In an attitude, we display, often without the intermediary of words, how we feel, and, how we judge the interhuman contacts at a particular moment. In a more sophisticated society, such attitudes are often accompanied by verbal symbols, and, even a superficial analysis and reflection shows, quickly, how complex and contradictory these attitudes and emotions may be. Even our verbal communications reflect, therefore, more often than not, an uncertain meaning.

4 An analysis of the communication of attitudes can best be approached by recapitulating the basic classification of emotional behaviour patterns. We have seen, that negative behaviour patterns result from stimuli that induce a defensive attitude of fear and suspicion, and, they are often expressed in a flight or fight. Sometimes, the extreme range of defensive behaviour may be characterised by a desperate last stance. On the other hand, there are also many positive stimuli. These generate emotions or feelings of confidence, well-being, joy, exuberance, aggression or victory. This is the basic positive-negative classification of environmental stimuli, which is shared throughout the entire realm of living existence.

5 This classification can be traced to the reaction patterns we observe in simple, uni-cellular life-forms. These reactions can be divided into a positive response towards a stimulus that is experienced as beneficial, and a negative response, away from, or resisting, a stimulus that has been found to be harmful. We have good reasons, therefore, to classify the infinitely more complex behaviour-patterns of large, multi-cellular organisms, including the human being, along similar lines. Emotional responses of the human being may be divided into a positive category, in the sense, that a positive response is made to a stimulus judged as beneficial, and a negative response is made to a stimulus that has been judged as harmful or potentially harmful. Such a classification is a useful starting point in the analysis of human behaviour, and, we will see, that such a seemingly simplistic classification helps us to understand the attitudes and behavioural responses of the human personality.

6 The crux of the complexity of human behaviour lies in the fact, that, more often than not, the circumstances of a certain situation or set of stimuli, are judged to be contradictory, and, often, the evaluation is completely opposite, when two individuals are judgeing the same circumstances from a set of opposing objectives. What is judged to be beneficial by one, may be considered harmful by the other, and, in every form of confrontation, we have such a divergence in the evaluation or judgement of essentially identical circumstances.

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Chapter 3

Content

The gene-pool of a population as the target for the criteria of survival in the socially integrated lifeforms.
Flexibility and plasticity of behaviour.
Mechanisms of cooperation.
The conflict between individual desires and communal objectives.

1 Many of the larger animals, and, especially, the socially integrated mammals, show in the development of their behaviour patterns, that natural selection operates, not always, by simply favouring a strong individual over his competitors. Natural selection acts, often, upon a group, a herd, a community as a whole, and, the entire gene-pool of such a community competes, then, for a possibility to exist with another gene-pool; another community of the same species, whenever they are in competitive contact with each other. This means, that the behavioural traits of cooperation in a common defense, a hunt, or the gathering of food, etc., have a superior survival-value compared to the mechanisms of ruthless internal competitive strife, where only the strongest, most adaptable and capable individuals survive.

2 It is interesting to note, that, in animal species` where natural selection has secured a remarkably invulnerable position for the full-grown adult, (like the members of the cat family), solitary existence is the rule, because the species has been quite successful in securing its continued existence and does not require the mechanisms of secondary social integration, in spite of the fact, that this solitary existence is interrupted by brief periods of mating and the discharge of parental responsibilities.

3 The human being, however, does not belong to this category of natural developments, because natural selection has not been able to secure such an invulnerable position for the solitary human adult. We know, now, that the success of human evolution depends, to a remarkable extent, upon a strong sense of togetherness and a well-utilised ability to cooperate flexibly and intelligently in small groupings, whenever the need arises to adapt to existential pressures.

4 A variable and flexible cooperation in the hunt and the defense, together with a flexible and innovative use of weapons and implements, as well as the honing of a ferocious killer-instinct, are, probably, the main factors that secured the remarkable mastery and survival ability of the human gene-pool. Nevertheless, the existential pressures were numerous and varied, and, most human groupings did not survive for one reason or another. We will look into the reasons for this, but, there has always been a group, here and there, which exhibited, for reasons that are not always easy to fathom, a sudden spurt of growth; a sudden vitality, leading, eventually, at the beginning of recorded history, to the establishment of large civilisations and powerful empires.

5 Flexibility in cooperation, the innovative use of aggressive and defensive techniques, as well as the ability of the human individual to integrate contradictory trends and impulses, (as we see in the tensions generated by conflicting individual and communal needs), are fundamental factors in our efforts to understand the human phenomenon. These factors also help us to understand the remarkable series of evolutionary break-throughs that made the human phenomenon possible. However, these break-throughs occurred at a staggering cost of suffering and death, because we know, now, that rapid evolutionary developments are only possible with a high genetic turn-over, and, this means, a high mortality rate and a short individual life-span.

6 These evolutionary developments took place, largely, in the pre-historic time-period of man`s existence, and, these events occurred beyond man`s awareness or ability to conceptualise these events. With the development of symbolic representation and language communication, an ever greater awareness of such events and circumstances of great significance, became possible. These awarenesses became a commual reservoir of notions and allowed its members to use, with ever greater skill, this cultural pool of concepts and ideas.

7 The ability of a community to work together and communicate verbally, facilitated the submission of the members to an intuitively sensitive and intelligent leader, who greatly contributed to the survival ability of the community with his accurate perception of prevailing realities. We assume, that such behavioural developments became an integral part of our biological heritage, because the award of improved or superior reality perceptions is automatically translated into a genetic encoding, whenever there is a rapid turn-over of generations and a high mortality rate for each generation.

8 Yet, at the same time, the tensions between individual needs and the needs of others, always remained in the background, and this factor still is, a most important concept in the unraveling of the vagaries of human behaviour. The conflict of interests still plays an important role in the cycle of growth and decline, characterising all human groupings. I do not pretend, that we understand, fully, the factors at work, here, and, we may safely assume, that an intense and introspective look at ourselves, (seen from the vantage points of the individual and his social surroundings), will always be a fertile source of new ideas and interpretations for our reality perceptions.

9 There can be no doubt, however, that these processes of social integration and disintegration have a role to play in the interpretation of beliefs and reality perceptions, because these images are born, and disappear again, within every social environment, whenever the members are actively participating in the mechanisms of concept formation and communication.

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Chapter 4

Content

Recognising the social origins of a structure of beliefs.
The chemistry of social success.
The growth of a successful social entity.
The balance between stressful pressures and regenerative energies.

1 So far as I am aware, the emphasis of a philosophical discussion or a religious reflection has always been on the differing contents of the various belief structures, and an immense effort has gone into the defense of one system of thought versus another. Very little attention has been paid to an analysis of, or reflection upon, the circumstances that may favour one mode of thought over another, and, the reason for the relative novelty of such an approach lies in the fact, that the communal or social origins of our concepts and atittudes have rarely been taken into account. Therefore, it may be worthwhile to look into the reasons for the existence and viability of certain philosophical or religious belief structures. We can do this by analysing the mechanisms that play a role in the formation of a social nucleus, and, by looking at the influence of a social entity on the contents of communal attitudes and beliefs.

2 It is still difficult to see, clearly, what factors play a role, when we notice a particular, mostly small social nucleus emerge, apparently, quite suddenly, and, often, with an amazing vitality and exuberance; a behaviour pattern that leads, invariably, to domination over, and expansion into, surrounding territories. What chemistry of social attitudes and beliefs is necessary for such a burst of communal "elan" to come to the fore, and, what sort of accidental circumstances of geographic location and communication patterns are involved in shaping the strength and extent of its sphere of influence?

3 Let us try to analyse the factors that play a role in the formation of such a social nucleus, as it begins to display a remarkable degree of confidence and vitality. In essence, the balance of the force-fields has shifted, for the society as a whole, towards the positive side. There exists, always, a vague and imprecise balance between the regenerative powers and stress-resisting capabilities of a society on the one hand, and, a variety of external pressures and internal weaknesses on the other. This balance has been disturbed, for one reason or another, and, it has shifted towards a preponderance of factors that are favouring an increased flow of energy through the social system, resulting in growth and expansion.

4 External pressures may have eased because of changing ethno-graphic and geographical conditions, but, an ability to take advantage of such a shift, must mean, that the level of communal confidence and the degree of internal cooperation has developed to the point, where the members of society are an effective, coordinated, flexible and unified instrument for the expression of the social or communal "elan vital".

5 In such a social entity, the belief structures of the members have become remarkably synchronised, or "congruous". These beliefs encourage, not only, the development of consciously articulated attitudes of confidence, (which, in turn, synchronise the goals and behaviour patterns of the members), but these beliefs also stimulate, strongly, those attitudes, behavioural traits and tendencies that are conducive to mutual cooperation and trust. In short, in a vigorous society, the synchronised beliefs and attitudes of the members make a clear-cut distinction between right and wrong, good and evil, courage and cowardice.

6 This pattern of judgements is always centered around the existential needs of the society as a whole. Internal dissent and egocentric attitudes are rigorously suppressed, but, communal aggression towards a neighbouring society, as well as the sanctity of the social structures and institutions, are glorified by an unquestioned and unwavering adherence to communal beliefs, as well as reverent attitudes towards the social institutions and its leaders.

7 A communal self-image that is expressed with the fervor of a fanatic belief, is fortified by a strong feeling of absolute certainty, as well as reverent attitudes towards the representative symbols of these beliefs. There is, therefore, always an attitude of reverence and admiration towards the leaders of society, who, invariably, start to manipulate these beliefs and attitudes for their own benefit, especially, after the reins of power have passed into less deserving hands.

8 Respect for authority, confidence and trust in the potential of society, as well as the righteousness of the leadership institutions, these factors are the main sources of strength and vitality for such a vibrant social nucleus. These aspects are reflected in a remarkable degree of cooperation, interdependence and mutual trust, as well as a sense of justice that is shared by a large and enthousiastic majority.

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Chapter 5

Content

Mechanisms of hierarchical stratification.
Hierarchical positioning as a substitute for all-out combat.
The basic mechanisms of interdependence.
A review of the mechanisms of interdependence; from biochemical reactions to human interactions.
Cooperation and competitiveness; seen from different planes of observation.
The genetic and cultural codes.

1 We should say a few words, here, about the hierarchical developments that have to take place in any community, be it human or animal, whenever the emphasis of the criteria for survival shifts from the individual to the group. In a broad and sweeping view, we see, (as we look closely at the relationships between the members of an interdependent entity, ranging from a molecule to complex human societies), that molecules and ions, dissolved in water, distribute themselves evenly throughout an area or volume of space. This dispersion indicates the existence of a certain "pressure-gradient". This is the internal pressure of a "concentration-gradient", which slopes from the center to the periphery. Such a gradient disappears after a uniform dispersion has been established. In other words, like substances spread out and exhibit a certain "territoriality", but this territoriality is based, purely, on physico-chemical energy relationships.

2 Similarly, we visualise that the polymerising molecules in the primordial protoplasmic seas would have shown a tendency to disperse themselves, unless a particular set of biochemical reactions depended for its existence on the end-product or by-product of another set of reactions. Then, both substances or compounds exist "easier" and are less vulnerable to degradation or destruction, as long as they continue to exist in close proximity to each other.

3 Since we have no reason to believe differently, we accept the notion, or hypothesis, that, prior to the development of uni-cellular life, the protoplasmic primordium represented an enormously vast bed of biochemical evolution, where, slowly, an immense variety of biochemical path-ways and patterns of organisation were tested on their viability or durability. Only a few biochemical reaction patterns of this immense field of actual or potential path-ways have been preserved as a viable existence-possibility within the living protoplasm of contemporary cellular entities. The nature and extent of this gigantic natural experiment with biochemical existence possibilities will always remain a fertile source for reflection and speculative thought.

4 In the word "experiment", we assume, as a rule, the presence of a "guiding principle" or, a deliberate and purposeful interaction, but, we visualise, actually, a mechanism of blind trial and error to have been at work in these processes, just as we postulate a process of blind trial and error to have been operative in the natural evolution of the multi-cellular organism, which took place, later, in this "natural experiment" with the possibilities of the living organisation.

5 However, with the evolution of the mechanisms of "genetic encoding", we see the emergence of a "guiding principle" for organic growth. This means, that the reproduction of a cellular unit, as well as a multi-cellular organism, becomes a "guided event", but, in the search for a viable blue-print or guidance-pattern, (which is the essence of the adaptation of a species to prevailing conditions), we see, once again, a process of blind trial and error at work, where viability becomes, eventually, encoded and perpetuated in a specifc genetic configuration.

6 We will procede, now, directly to an important generalisation. We know, that the development of the single cell depended on a long, slow process of testing biochemical mechanisms, where the reproduceability of an intricate interdependence of biochemical reaction-patterns was a prerequisite. Similarly, the organisation and development of the multi-cellular organism became only a viable possibility of existence, after the single cells experienced the advantages, or, rather, the increased viability of grouping-together into a community of cells. Grouping-together, however, required the development of interdependencies, and, this would not have been possible, if the cells would have remained fiercely competitive in relation to each other.

7 Mutual interdependence of cells became, not only, a mechanism whereby the existence-possibilities of the community began to exceed, by far, the range of possibilities available to an individual cell, but, the mechanisms of interdependence also allowed for a remarkable concentration of the cell-population. This population of closely associated and integrated cells started to behave, increasingly, as a single unit, as we see, so convincingly, in the behavioural capabilities of the large, multi-cellular organisms we are familiar with.

8 Yet, the contacts between multi-cellular organisms reveal, once again, the primitive characteristic of "dispersive competitiveness", before we see a somewhat similar process taking place in the development of mutual interdependencies between the multi-cellular individuals of a species, or, rather, between the members of a specific population of a species. The social organisation of the large multi-cellular organism is a repetition of the same developments that took place in the evolutionary break-through of multi-cellular existence, because both events reflect a similar search for conditions of viability or possibilities of existence.

9 The behavioural characteristics of the community as a unit, (be it a community of biochemical reactions in the unit of the cell, or, the community of cells in the behavioural entity of the multi-cellular organism), the behavioural characteristics in the "next order" of organisation, or "higher plane" of existence, exhibit the same principles of primary, competitive behaviour as the individual units exhibited prior to their fusion into a multi-individual unit of the new order.

10 This is a very useful generalising concept, since it explains and clarifies our understanding of the differences in behaviour, when comparing human communities in a state of competitive contact, to the behaviour of human beings or groups of human beings, who have become integrated into a socially viable entity.

11 We will see, time and again, how a high degree of interdependence and organisation leads to the formation of a strong and vigorous society, but, whenever two such social entities come in contact with each other, they show, nearly always, a primitive pattern of competitive behaviour. Of course, the analogy has its faults and weaknesses, and, I do not pretend that we have an exact parallel, here, but, I feel that this generalised concept is useful to keep in mind.

12 Short-comings of the analogy, mentioned above, show in two major areas. In the first place, the nature of a social organisation and the mechanisms of interdependence between human beings are quite different from the very tight internal controls that exist within a single, multi-cellular organism. The time-span of the formative periods, as well as the ruthlessness of naturally selective mechanisms, have been far greater in the formation of the multi-cellular unit, than in the still tentative and early patterns of social integration of the multi-cellular organisms themselves.

13 When we look at the social organisation of the human being and related anthropoid lifeforms, we see another remarkable difference with the multi-cellular community of the single, multi-cellular individual. This difference is the degree of variability in behaviour each member of the human society can show as a result of different experiences or beliefs. We have outlined, on previous occasions, the concepts that lie behind behavioural plasticity or individual behavioural adaptability.

14 A certain variability or plasticity in the form and function of an individual cell is displayed in the differentiations in form and function cells are capable of, primarily, during the stage of embryogenesis. This leads to a state of mutual interdependence, as well as a remarkable degree of specialisation in form and function. Such developments in the organisation patterns of cells are selected by the criteria of viability, and these patterns of organisation are carefully guarded against deterioriation, or loss, by a form of transmission that is based on a biochemically locked-in genetic code. In contrast, the interdependence and specialisation of function of the members of a human or anthropoid social organisation, depend, almost exclusively, on a specialisation in behaviour, skills and attitudes, and, these patterns of differentiation depend very little on a genetically encoded, organic specialisation.

15 As we mentioned before, we have to assume, that the human capability or potential for such a specialisation in function and interdependence in behaviour has a strong biological "anlage". This ability has been developed, and encoded, by the forces of natural selection. However, the degree to which such interdependencies take place, and, in particular, the form in which a mutual interdependence is actually realised, depends on local circumstances, as well as on the strength and viability of culturally transmitted guidelines for behavioural organisation.

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Chapter 6

Content

Mechanisms of interdependence in the human society.
The surrender of sovereignty in a hierarchical order.
Advantages of the hierarchical order.
The role and functions of leadership.
Equal rights.
The experience of equal treatment by a sophisticated leadership.
The need to suppress internal strife.

1 The possibility to form bonds of interdependence in a social organisation is, therefore, present in each one of us as a genetically endowed, biological heritage. Similarly, we all have a genetic "anlage" to learn symbolic representations, and, to form concepts and express ourselves with the technique of language communications. However, it is only the possibility, or potential, to learn a language or to form bonds of interdependence, which is genetically endowed and transmitted. Whether or not such a possibility is actually realised, and, in what form this possibility comes into an actual existence, depends, entirely, on the circumstances under which an individual or social grouping is developing.

2 What types of interdependence can we notice in a socially integrated entity of human beings? The mechanisms are extremely varied and it is difficult to generalise, here. The most basic form we see, is the phenomenon of "hierarchical positioning". This form of social interdependence is genetically encoded and precedes the origin of the human species, since we see the phenomenon of hierarchical stratification in many animal groupings as well. The reason for the emergence of a hierarchical stratification lies in the need to suppress, or subdue, the impulse to engage in competitive strife. A suppression of this instinctive tendency is a preliminary step towards any form of social organisation.

3 The most elementary pathway for an evolutionary exploration of possibilities of existence, is the principle of the "survival of the strongest unit", but, in the case of a socially integrated organisation, natural selection acts upon the survival of the group as a whole. This shift in emphasis by the force-fields of natural selection requires the substitution of victory and defeat with the mechanisms of dominance and submission within the socially integrated unit. This shift in behaviour results in a gain in viability for all the participants in a social entity, and not just the "winner". This, I feel, is the most important, and, probably, the first form of interdependence to develop in the social integration of complex, behaviourally flexible lifeforms, because we see these same mechanisms already in the coherence of the cellular protoplasm.

4 The ability to surrender a measure of sovereignty in the behavioural choice to the strongest individual, or, the stronger members of a group, is a compromise solution, where the existence of both groups of individuals, the dominant and the submissive, benefit from such an arrangement. The dominant members receive an extended territory, as well as the services, admiration and tributes of their "subjects", but they pay for this privilege with an increased responsibility for the safety, and, to a certain extent, the well-being of those, who pay them the tribute of submission.

5 If the arrangement of mutual interdependence in a hierarchical order would not have some mutually beneficial aspects, the existence of a state of interdependence would disappear in favour of renewed competitive strife, and, we see, indeed, how elusive and fragile such a relationship is, in particular, if we look at the larger and more complex human societies.

6 The development of mutual interdependence in the early human grouping is limited, almost exclusively, to an exchange of sovereignty for protection, and, it is probably fair to conclude, that the earliest, subconscious forms of mutual interdependence arise out of a need to cooperate in hunting operations, or, to engage in a communal defense effort against intruders.

7 Probably, a number of interdependencies developed almost simultaneously, once the members of a species had learned to tolerate each other at close quarters. If cooperation was to be anything more than a momentary, spontaneous and haphazard incidence, it would require organisation, and, organisation requires a differentiation into leaders and followers. The voluntary act of submission to a stronger power, together with the acceptance of a subordinate position, means, therefore, that this submission is only acceptable, if there are certain advantages associated with it, such as protection and the right to feed within the territory of the dominant power, and, we see, indeed, how a differentiation of behaviour and a specialisation in function are often taking place, simultaneously.

8 The acceptance of protection and privileges in exchange for an attitude of submission and recognition of leadership, also means, an acceptance of behavioural decisions made by the dominant personality. In the larger human societies, we see a complex hierarchical stratification develop, with many positions of power and influence in between leaders and followers. This results in the formation of many different sub-groupings in the larger and more complex societies, often defying description and a clear-cut analysis.

9 However, the acceptance of leadership by a great majority of people within a social entity has an enormous influence on the development of interhuman contacts, and, it is the basis upon which a common cultural code develops. The dominant position of a successful leader, or leadership structure, becomes an instrument of mediation in disputes, as well as an instrument of judgement in conflicts of interests between the members of a social entity, and, invariably, a leadership will suppress serious hostilities between its subjects.

10 The reasons for these leadership attitudes and behaviour patterns are not quite clear, and, we have to resort to a somewhat vague generalisation. It is possible, that the leader of a group develops an intolerance to internal quarreling, because internal frictions weaken the structure as a whole. Since the leader has assumed a position of dominance over the entire group, a weakening, by internal quarreling, may be felt by the leader as an infringement upon his territorial integrity and social "possessions".

11 By embracing the entire group in his territory of dominance and orchestrating the behaviour of the members into a unit, the leader can not accept any internal bickering, irrespective of cause, nor, can he be partial to any particular side in a situation of conflict, because the acceptance of any form of internal strife would interfere with the strength and organisation of his unit. This would be felt as a personal challenge to his leadership. Instinctively, the leader will squash fighting and competitive differences are, then, settled grudgingly, in a hierarchical stratification, rather than by an all-out fight with a permanent decision of victory and defeat.

12 Internal tensions remain, however, and hierarchical contests absorb a great deal of energy, but these hierarchical contests also indicate, that the hierarchical stratification remains flexible. As the size of the social unit increases, these tensions and contests quickly reach intolerable levels, but they can be made largely superfluous by imposing a form of "equal justice", whereby the need for a test-fight is eliminated by implementing a scrupulous equality of the members. However, this is a rather late and sophisticated evolutionary development that came to the fore, only, in the much larger human societies.

13 The institution of multi-individual leadership in the larger human societies evolved slowly, and, this transition was made possible, in part, as a result of a clearly articulated system of "fairness in judgement" and "equality in treatment", as well as a judicious balance between "dominance by force" and "dominance by persuasion".

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Chapter 7

Content

Authority and leadership.
Sub-specialisation of the channels of authority.
The importance of emotions and attitudes in the communication of authority.
The concept of resonance.
Emotional resonance in animal organisms.
The variability of emotional response patterns in the human society.
The increasing importance of the cultural code.

1 The road to understanding is a long one, and the generalisations about successful leadership behaviour are not easy to obtain. We will discuss, many times, the question of leadership, and, we will try, on many occasions, to wring some essential generalisation from the numerous, baffling and contradictory observations we can make about leadership. Let us say, here, only, that the evaluation of leadership is a complex process, and, we see, that a society often lacks a coherent or articulate judgement about its own leaders or leadership institutions, and, even, in a historical perspective, the evaluation of exceptional leadership is difficult and controversial.

2 I would like to return to the question, how much influence a successful leadership structure excercises upon the flow of ideas, emotions and attitudes within a community, taking into account the existence of hierarchical strata throughout society. Authority and leadership go hand in hand. In a complex society, the various tasks of leadership will be divided over a number of people who excercise their leadership functions in a specialised area of knowledge and expertise. Often, an overall leader remains in charge in the form of a political leadership, but religious functions, as well as a variety of specialised scientific areas, are delegated to others, who answer only indirectly to the overall political leadership. The common citizen in society draws from these various sources of authority the main contents of his beliefs, his knowledge and his attitudes, as well as the various services he requires to exist in a state of relative well-being.

3 If we look at the processes of transfer and communication that play a role in this continuous flux of attitudes and exchange of information between the members of a social grouping, we see, that the communication of an attitude by sub-verbal means, (such as gesticulating and posturing), is by far the oldest form of communication. We see, clearly, how attitudes are communicated in animal societies, where conceptual transfer by verbal symbols is completely absent. The attitudes are, primarily, concerned with the position of dominance and the acceptance of this dominance in an act of submission. Even in the complex human society, the flux of verbalised or verbalisable concepts is only a fraction of the total flow of communications that is taking place, (like the tip of an ice-berg), and, the subconscious communications of emotional feelings and attitudes is often the dominant factor, determining the content and significance of the conceptual symbols.

4 Let us have a look at the mechanisms that are involved in the communication of emotions and ideas, and, we see, that the most important factor in a communication is the act of recognition. An attitude, emotion or concept has to be recognised, before it can be communicated. Such a recognition increases the familiarity and validity of the communicated emotion or idea, and, this leads to a greatly increased awareness of the existence of such an emotion or idea as the result of a "resonance mechanism".

5 In physics, the concept of resonance applies to the process, where a vibrating string, drum or object, induces a similar vibration in a nearby object. The vibrations are transmitted through air-waves, but the degree to which a nearby object can participate in the frequency of the vibrations of the radiating object, depends, to a large extent, on the physical properties of this object. These characteristics have to include a certain "readiness" to be excited into a vibration with a particular frequency. The act of "recognition" depends, also, on an innate propensity to vibrate in the frequency of the vibrations that surround a particular object.

6 The process of emotional resonance is very similar. There must be a certain predisposition to a particular emotion that is being "radiated". The emotion has to be recognised, before it becomes possible to be "swept-up" into a similar emotional state. These emotional "vibrations" are, of course, not mediated as waves, but are observed, or felt, as "sense-data", and they are transferred, from one person to another, as a result of seeing the behavioural complex of individuals who are radiating a certain emotion in unison.

7 For example, the survival value of a quickly spreading or seemingly instantaneous emotion or emotionally organised behaviour pattern, such as the flight of a flock of birds, is obvious, and, every group of animals, living together as a herd or a flock, has evolved such communal responses, in particular, to danger. Animals that respond less readily, or, less in unison with the main body of the herd or flock, become separated and are the first to be eliminated by a predator. Communal behaviour patterns, where the members of the group have evolved the ability to act, quickly and simultaneously, in response to the radiation or communication of a specific emotional state, have become a powerful tool in the struggle for survival.

8 However, the human species does not remain at the stage of synchronised "mass-emotions", but its members become organised into a complex hierarchical stratification with many subtle differentiations in the emotional communications that are taking place within a group. This vast elaboration of contacts and communications begins to conform to our concepts and ideas of a human society, where a quick flow of finely differentiated emotional behaviour patterns becomes possible and useful.

9 The range of signals increases. Not only, are there external danger signals, but there is also an increasing repertoir of signals from the leaders who request or command a specific response, or, a variety of different responses from different individuals, depending on a number of differing internal situations or events. With the evolution of task-differentiation, the complexity of signal communication and the variability of individual responses increases to such an extent, that the specificity of a required response can not be met, anymore, by a primitive and rather stereo-typed emotional behaviour pattern. A specifically tailored response is needed and has to be carried-out appropriately, and, this specific response is elicited by a specific signal that probably started as a gesture or vocalisation and, eventually, became a language-symbol.

10 The differentiation of a variety of communication symbols is, obviously, a slow and laborious process, certainly, before the availability of a differentiated vocabulary and a sophisticated syntax. The early stages of this development, as well as the subsequent organic evolution that took place in the physical make-up of the human organism, are etched into our genetic code, and, these patterns of organisation are now part of our biological heritage as the commonly endowed "anlage" to "speak".

11 We have seen, how slow this process of organic, physical evolution really is. It takes countless generations and many more individual deaths, before the process of natural selection is able to bring a certain ability into a sharp focus; by rigorously eliminating those parts of the gene-pool that would dilute the penetration or actualisation of the desired feature.

12 Once we reach the stage, that the adaptation of a mode of behaviour can be transferred and modified by learned symbols, or acquired techniques of communication, the process of "finely tuning" adaptative responses becomes enormously accelerated. Yet, the rigidity and durability of a successful behaviour pattern is only as good, and as stable, as the methods and durability of the cultural transmission itself.

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Chapter 8

Content

The inability of man to learn from his experiences, once and for all.
Rigidity; advantages and disadvantages of the cultural code.
The problem of rapidly changing circumstances for a successful and relevant cultural code.
The elan vital in biochemical reactions.
The cell, the multi-cellular individual, and the social integration of human beings.
The stability of the inorganic chemical compound.
Energy-gradients.

1 The apparent inability of man to learn from his experiences, once and for all, is related to the fact, that the cultural mode of transmission is not rigid. After all, the cultural code came into being as a result of the need for a temporary fine-tuning of the behavioural response to ever-varying circumstances.

2 Our experiences and circumstances, as well as the endless succession of conflicts with their victories and defeats, depend, now, entirely on individual and collective behavioural choices that are culturally transmitted. We know, still, very little about the reasons, why a specific society, at a certain time and place, becomes, often quite suddenly, remarkably successful and expansionistic, but, we must assume, that the cutural pool of experiences, attitudes and knowledge changes rapidly as a result of such a success, and, inevitably, the younger generations start to receive a different set of guidelines, compared to the guidelines that made their fore-fathers so successful.

3 The form and content of a cultural code may, at times, become sharpened and hardened, be it temporarily, into a more durable mold that can survive, unchanged, a process of transfer from one generation to the next, but, in order to do so, it is necessary that the circumstances for the social environment remain nearly constant, and, that no significant adaptative demands are being made on this cultural heritage.

4 The crystallisation of a cultural heritage into a rigid mold will only be beneficial, if the transmitted guidance patterns remain relevant for the living generations. The precision with which the accumulated wisdoms and experiences can be transmitted to the younger generations, will determine the strength and cohesion of a society. In order for a society, then, to become successful, it must have sufficient time to build-up a meaningful cultural content, that can be transmitted, intact, from one generation to the next, in order to avoid a loss of important experiences and achievements of the past. Unfortunately, this cultural "lag-phase" of a society is, so often, shrouded in mystery, since the origins of such a development are, usually, poorly recorded. Besides, the nature of this process is not clearly perceived by the participants in such a process of cultural growth, because these mechanisms take place, largely, outside the sphere of our voluntary control or decision-making.

5 Many societies reach a stage of rigidly crystallised cultural patterns and guidelines that vary little from one generation to the next. If this leads to a balance between relatively unchanging external or internal pressures on the one hand, and the powers of regeneration on the other, we reach a somewhat dull situation of stability, characterising many of the more isolated and still somewhat primitive societies. However, if such a maturation process has taken place on the periphery of a more complex and varied social environment, such a group of people may find itself with a remarkably coherent and stable cultural backbone through which the affairs of society, as well as the individual, are taking place with increasing ease and confidence.

6 Then, we have witnessed the birth of a viable social nucleus, and this process is somewhat similar to the mechanisms of organic reproduction, where the duplication of a stable code for the guidance of biological events sets into motion the unfolding of the possibilities of its existence, provided, that the organism is sheltered and nourished adequately during its formative period.

7 The young, developing embryo is a pathway for the dissipation of a suitable energy-gradient. It is a sponge, soaking-up the energy from its environment. We call this energy, "nutrition", and the genetic code rigidly regulates the unfolding of its programmed sequences, resulting in the build-up of the multi-cellular comunity; the individual organism.

8 The force to grow, fueled by the supply of food and channeled by the genetic code, is reflected, also, in the confidence and exuberance which a smoothly functioning society shows so clearly. This process of viable social integration leads to an ever increasing flow of energy through the "metabolic pathways" of the social system, and, the growing society starts to absorb and dominate the surrounding areas. The "elan vital", or the pressure to grow, is as real in a society as it is in the multi-cellular organism, or the individual cell, because we are talking, in essence, about the same mechanisms.

9 The generalised abstraction of this process, (a concept that embraces all these apparently diverse phenomena), could be formulated as follows; an energy-gradient, (which is an energy-potential across a system), will always result in a flow of energy, if an appropriate pathway has been provided, and, if the internal resistance of the system is less than the force-fields acting upon it.

10 In a biological system, such a pathway is provided by the biochemical reaction. Here, a certain chemical transformation may facilitate the occurrence of another, etc., until we reach a chain of biochemical reactions. This is comparable to the flow of water in a river or stream, where the river-bed, or the gully, froms a channel of least resistance for the flow of water that is responding to a gravitational energy-gradient.

11 The fact, that the "inorganic world" under average terrestial conditions is stable, means, that the average energy-gradients, acting upon inorganic substances, are insufficient to effect a change. The internal resistance to change is too great, which is the same as saying, that these compounds are stable under average terrestial conditions.

12 The essential feature of a biochemical reaction is the fact, that its internal resistance is sufficiently low to give-way to the gradient that has been created by the capture of solar energy in the form of high-energy chemical bonds. As a result, a stream of chemical permutations flows through the fragile compounds that find a possibility of existence, and their stability is, therefore, low. This is the reason, why a living cell has to spend, continuously, some energy to maintain its integrity, stability or status-quo. If a cell is unable to direct a portion of the biochemical energy that is flowing through its system, towards the activities of maintenance and repair, the cell will lose its integrity and die, because it will then be unable to resist the dispersive chemical pressure-gradients we, collectively, summarise in the concept of "entropy".

13 However, after this digression into the philosophical generalisations of the life-processes, we should go back to our considerations of the mechanisms that operate in a society of human beings, as well as in each individual. A gradual stiffening of a cultural tradition by the mechanisms of sanctity and reverence has the advantage of preserving for the following generations a "modus vivendi" that has proven to be useful, or, even, essential, for survival in the past. If, as happens, occasionally, a break-through occurs into growth and expansion, these mechanisms of growth create, rapidly, a vastly different set of circumstances, and, the relevance of the rigid cultural code, (which was at the root of this successful growth), starts to decrease. The vastly increased security and diversity of contacts tends to expose the age and restrictiveness of the rigid, institutionalised cultural code, and, it slowly crumbles or fragments into a variety of cultural expressions, as the living generations search, intuitively, for a new meaning and relevance.

14 The loosening of a generally accepted cultural code leads to the formulation of numerous small and diverging social nuclei, which are often at odds with each other. The security of existence for these sub-groupings disappears, slowly, in a process of "social entropy", but again, there is a long "lag-phase". The general increase in wealth and leisure-time leads to an expression of individualised desires, as well as a flowering of the arts in a cultural diversity that shows, often, individual genius, but, also, the trappings of chaos for the fully mature and now ageing and decaying social order.

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Chapter 9

Content

Cause-effect relationships and the anthropomorphic explanation of natural force-fields.
The logic of primitive man.
The relativity of scientific insights.
Resonance and belief in scientific concepts.
The importance of underlying emotions and motivations.
The narrow perspective of many modern scientists and technological personnel.
The value of the scientific method and the fruits of scientific investigations.

1 A conceptual framework of early human cause-effect relationships reflects, almost always, a system of anthropomorphic forces, which means, that man is inclined to interpret the myriad of his awarenesses in a system that is similar to the way man functions himself. Nothing is more logical for early man, than to see, in nature, forces at work that are essentially similar to the "willed" forces of man himself, as well as the animals that surround him.

2 What is more logical for man, especially, for the leaders of these early nomadic groupings, than to see themselves in a hierarchy that extends beyond the boundaries of their specific community? Just as the followers in society have abdicated, to some extent, the sovereignty of decision-making to their leaders, so see the leaders their own position as a state of submission to the forces of their ancestral spirits, or, to the anthropomorphic forces around them, which are, so obviously, more powerful than their own.

3 We should recognise the fact, that it is startling, and strange, to reach the bold conclusion, that the human will is the only "free will" we know of in our Universe. This conclusion is reached, time and again, by our recent scientific observations. Throughout the history of mankind`s recorded history, skeptics have thrown doubt on the metaphysical explanations of man`s awarenesses. Nevertheless, it is, not only, startling to conclude, that man is the only freely willing creature we know of, but, this concept is highly uncomfortable, because it deprives us from a natural inclination to submit to a greater power. It deprives man from the means to placate or to co-erce a supra-human power into actions that are favourable to him, but modern technology, as well as the whole endeavour of scientific understanding, find their justification in the development of an alternative and more predictable way to "co-erce" these supra-human force-fields.

4 The bold conclusion, that the human being is the only "willed force" we see in the world around us, also deprives man of the ability to see adversity as a result of "sin", or, as the result of a mistake, neglect or ingratitude in his relationships with the gods. By denying man the experience of sin and atonement for his misdeeds, man deprives himself from a powerful mechanism to build again from scratch; to start with a clean slate; to begin with a newly found flexibility and resolve.

5 Of course, the price paid for a belief in the powers of a supra-human "free will", is enormous. The price paid for the possibility to expurgate sin, is, often, a staggering burden of guilt and anxiety, and, these beliefs and attitudes have, so often, led to a ritualistic practice of sacrifice, which seems, to our modern eyes, so self-defeating and contradictory to the essential freedoms of human existence.

6 However, if we realise, that the totally naturalistic, non-metaphysical and non-religious attitude is still, by far, a minority belief or sentiment in the world, (or, rather, a minority belief that is only sustainable at the price of a great intellectual effort and emotional independence), it may be easier for us to understand, (having been brought-up in a confident belief of the reality and reliability of the sciences), why religious and magical beliefs, or "superstitions", have such a tenacious hold over large parts of mankind. We will, then, be able to see the reasons, why religious attitudes and beliefs are so attractive to many people, not only, for the ordinary members of society, but often, for their leaders as well.

7 By analysing the social structure of sub-groupings, we will see, how, and why, certain beliefs spread, but, we will never allow ourselves the fundamental mistake to equate the scientific view-point with an absolute reality. We will always acknowledge, that the persuasiveness of scientific ideas depend, just as much as religious beliefs, upon an intellectual and emotional resonance between people, who, often, form a select and small sub-grouping. We will also see, why the existential advantage of intelligence is, so often, used as a weapon, or a tool, to carve-out a position of power and privilege.

8 Rarely do we see the use of scientific realities as a mode of living; as a means to wisdom in knowledge and attitude. Such an attitude of wisdom and knowledge could be persuasive to those, who are less endowed with the ability to comprehend intellectual complexities, or conceptual subtleties and philosophical niceties. By keeping in mind the emotional background of all our communications, and, by keeping in mind the realisation, that we always judge, mostly subconsciously, behavioural attitudes, as well as verbalised concepts and ideas, on their existential significance for us, we may gain a better insight into the reasons, why we, sometimes, succeed, but often fail in our efforts to communicate.

9 We will also see, more clearly, the reasons, why the intellectual concepts of the sciences face such a long and persistent battle for acceptance; why they are sometimes greatly persuasive and powerful, but often, rejected with an attitude of suspicion, or, even, violent scorn, which is totally baffling to the scientific mind. If the scientist could only see the large content of beliefs in his facts and opinions, as well as the equally large component of attitudes in his communications, he would be a lot wiser. Unfortunately, the training of scientists, professionals and technicians is, often, narrowly and blatantly geared to securing a well-paid position in society, and, it is logical, that society reacts with suspicion and hostility against the egocentric intellectual, who has forgotten, nearly completely, his responsibilities as a leader in a field of specialised knowledge and expertise.

10 The behavioural attitudes of the scientsts are often impoverished by a limited sphere of contacts and a limited field of "scientific vision", which takes-in, often, such a small segment of reality, that the scientist loses the ability to communicate meaningfully with lay-people, and, in particular, with the broadly based and generalised concerns of intelligent citizens.

11 The striking insecurity of the scientific professional, together with his struggle for recognition and survival in the academic jungle, is repulsive to an audience that perceives, intuitively, the almost total blindness of people who consider themselves to be such important experts. The primitive aggressiveness and the loss of the ability to listen, (which is so commonly associated with a ferocious competitive struggle), are a deplorable sight, and, it is frightening to see so many of these experts in positions of power and influence.

12 We may well destroy ourselves, unless we learn to curb the unbridled influence of the narrow specialist and the elitist achiever, who are so poorly endowed with wise attitudes, and, who are so dangerous in their intellectual arrogance.

13 I like to point out, here, that my quarrel is not with the scientific method, but with the blindness to overall human concerns, which many professionals show as a result of their pre-occupation with a particular field of expertise. My quarrel is not with the all-important contributions to our understanding, which have been made, especially, in the past few centuries, by many hard-working and utterly dedicated people. Their achievements form a source of knowledge I constantly refer to and make use of. The danger does not lie in the existence of the many useful concepts and ideas the scientists have given us after years of hard work. The danger lies in the gigantic fragmentation of this body of knowledge into numerous specialties and the blatant use of such knowledge for personal gain.

14 Unfortunately, many professionals in our modern, affluent and chaotic societies have been trained to function only for their own existential security, and, it is logical, that they propagate a narrow structure of beliefs that has been centered around their own particular vantage point.

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Chapter 10

Content

Emotionally charged and emotionally neutral awarenesses.
The need to believe.
The scientist and the preacher.
The dilemmas of ordinary people.

1 Concepts and ideas are always synthesised from a large variety of ill-defined experiences, as well as specific observations, and, it is logical, that the conceptualisations of man are imperfect in their precision, as well as in their distinction between emotionally neutral and emotionally coloured observations. In view of man`s primary observations with his naked senses, the world of spirits and super-natural powers is, by far, the most logical conceptual synthesis, and, it is only after a considerable degree of sophisticated study and reflection, that it becomes possible for the human mind to categorise its experiences and observations into a more or less coherent system of static, impersonal constants, or "natural laws". These natural laws allow us to "explain" our observations and experiences in such a way, that the element of a "willed choice" is taken-out of most, if not all, our observations of nature.

2 The remarkable success of conceptualising the constantly changing aspects of nature into a system of static constants, or "natural laws", has led, also, to some remarkably forced interpretations about the nature of man, because it has led to concepts that deny the existence of a "willed", choice-like behaviour in man himself, contrary to one of our most fundamental experiences.

3 The over-confidence, or, over-estimation of man`s powers of synthesis and comprehension, is often looked upon with suspicion by the average individual, because the average person has to resort to an act of faith, regardless, whether he believes the scientist or the preacher. Time and again, the average individual will go back to the more established religious beliefs, which do not proclaim the preposterous idea that man is the highest and solitary form of intelligence in the Universe. This concept is hard to swallow for the ordinary citizen, especially, when he observes the massive confusion around him, as well as the contradictory opinions and indecisive attitudes of the many scientific experts and leadership structures within his social environment.

4 The failure of the sciences, so far, to really guide man and his societies, is one of the most important short-comings of modern scientific endeavour, in spite of the fact, that many generally accepted scientific concepts and observations can now be forged into a comprehensive view of nature and human behaviour.

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Summary

1. The conceptual nature of the world of conscious awareness.
The fallacy of our sense of individual uniqueness.
The cultural pool of concepts, ideas, notions and attitudes.
The role of solitude and meditation.
The need to recognise an idea or concept before it can be useful.

2. The pool of common notions and emotions.
The basic distinction between positive and negative stmuli.
Complex and contradictory stimuli.

3. The gene-pool of a population as the target for the criteria of survival in the socially integrated lifeforms.
Flexibility and plasticity of behaviour.
Mechanisms of cooperation.
The conflict between individual desires and communal objectives.

4. Recognising the social origins of a structure of beliefs.
The chemistry of social success.
The growth of a successful social entity.
The balance between stressful pressures and regenerative energies.

5. Mechanisms of hierarchical stratification.
Hierarchical positioning as a substitute for all-out combat.
The basic mechanisms of interdependence.
A review of the mechanisms of interdependence; from biochemical reactions to human interactions.
Cooperation and competitiveness; seen from different planes of observation.
The genetic and cultural codes.

6. Mechanisms of interdependence in the human society.
The surrender of sovereignty in a hierarchical order.
Advantages of the hierarchical order.
The role and functions of leadership.
Equal rights.
The experience of equal treatment by a sophisticated leadership.
The need to suppress internal strife.

7. Authority and leadership.
Sub-specialisation of the channels of authority.
The importance of emotions and attitudes in the communication of authority.
The concept of resonance.
Emotional resonance in animal organisms.
The variability of emotional response patterns in the human society.
The increasing importance of the cultural code.

8. The inability of man to learn from his experiences, once and for all.
Rigidity; advantages and disadvantages of the cultural code.
The problem of rapidly changing circumstances for a successful and relevant cultural code.
The elan vital in biochemical reactions.
The cell, the multi-cellular individual, and the social integration of human beings.
The stability of the inorganic chemical compound.
Energy-gradients.

9. Cause-effect relationships and the anthropomorphic explanation of natural force-fields.
The logic of primitive man.
The relativity of scientific insights.
Resonance and belief in scientific concepts.
The importance of underlying emotions and motivations.
The narrow perspective of many modern scientists and technological personnel.
The value of the scientific method and the fruits of scientific investigations.

10. Emotionally charged and emotionally neutral awarenesses.
The need to believe.
The scientist and the preacher.
The dilemmas of ordinary people.

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