IN SEARCH OF REALITY I
The Challenge
A Study in Thought
by
Marius Heuff
Chapter 1
The role of understanding; functions of comprehension and mental mechanisms.
The discrepancy between a predicted and an observed event.
The search for a common denominator.
The differentiation of concepts and ideas from a common pool of notions.
The importance of the function of recognition.
There is beauty in understanding; an awareness most of us have experienced personally, but, how many of us understand the relationships between this sensation or emotion of beauty and the process of understanding? Understanding and comprehending are synonymous; at least, it seems reasonable, for the time being, to consider these words as interchangeable, but the word comprehension appears to indicate, better, the underlying mental processes than the word understanding.
If I comprehend something, (and, let us for the time being concentrate on the conscious aspects of understanding), I am able to fit a series of separate awarenesses or concepts into a coherent framework. These concepts form, then, a structure of awarenesses that relate to each other in a regular, more or less predictable manner, and, by our ability to fit a series of concepts into a framework, we facilitate our mastery, or "comprehension", over this series of awarenesses.
In stead of having to memorise a series of ideas or facts, we are now able to see one fact or event as a consequence of another, and, by applying the generalising ideas that govern the relationships between these concepts, we are able to predict, with varying degrees of accuracy, the position and content of the other concepts.
The key to understanding and comprehending is the facilitation of this ability to relate a series of concepts to each other by a principle of organisation; a generalisation; a "natural law"; a sequence of predictability, which gives us the sensation and impression of being "logical". If we comprehend the organising principles that relate a series of sense impressions, data, "facts" or ideas to each other, we switch from a knowledge based on memory to a knowledge based on deduction. Yet these mechanisms may reflect a largely intuitive process.
We are all aware of the fact, that predicted correlations and observed data almost always diverge to some extent, and, this indicates, that the act of comprehension is, at best, only an approximation of reality. We will see, that the structural correlations between our conceptual images may appear irrelevant, or, they may disappear completely, whenever we change the scope and focus of our observations. Naturally occurring phenomena, (which we perceive at the level of our daily existence without the enlargements made possible by instruments), may completely disappear, as soon as we begin to observe these same realities at a microscopic or ultra-microscopic level.
The realisation, that the apparently solid happenings of macroscopic events may lose themselves into an entirely different world by changing the field of our vision, is one of the most powerful indications, that we have to take any apparent reality with a large dose of relativistic salt. We come to the conclusion, not only, that the general appearances, (upon which we rely so heavily for our routine behaviour and comprehension), melt away as a mirage, whenever we change our field of observation, but, we have come to realise, that our most specific and tangible realities to which we have given names, (or, rather, language symbols and conceptual existence), are, themselves, already abstractions and generalisations.
It should become clear in the course of our discussions, that the names we give to our most common objects of daily use, describe, actually, categories of similar objects that are used for similar purposes. However, these objects are all different, even, if the differences are slight and sometimes trivial. We would not be able to function, if we did not have the ability to see a common denominator in the circumstances and objects surrounding us, because we would not be able to recognise an object or event as "familiar". This means, then, that practically all language symbols, even, those that appear quite specific and concrete, are used as generalisations. These generalised categories provide us with the possibility to recognise our environment, and to manipulate and communicate the events of our daily experiences.
We may come, therefore, to the somewhat startling conclusion, that we are dealing, always, with some form of generalisation, regardless, how particular or specific the object or event appears to be. As a matter of fact, we try to delineate the specificity of an object or event with a long description or an extensive story, indicating, at all times, to what degree, and, in what aspect, this specific event or object is different from others we know and can relate to. At the same time, however, we have to indicate, also, in what respect the described event or item of existence resembles another event or item of existence, otherwise, the communication becomes meaningless. If we communicate only negative aspects; if we only say what it is not, we, as the audience, are unable to comprehend or formulate a mental image about whatever the author is trying to convey.
This brings us to another statement; namely, that the specifics of our observations, or, the individual variability of the events and happenings in our surrounding, are slowly being made aware to us by a constant process of communication, which is taking place as we live together in a community. This process occurs mostly intuitively, or subconsciously, but, on reflection, it becomes obvious, that we differentiate, indeed, the myriad of separate awarenesses in the process of living together in a socially integrated environment; communicating ideas, observations, feelings and stories. Slowly, our conceptual vocabulary enlarges through such a process of conceptual differentiations, until we reach a point, where the massive number of knowable facts and differentiated concepts become unmanageable, and we need, then, a process in reverse.
Because of the large number of different awarenesses, words, concepts and ideas we have to work with, we are trying, out of sheer necessity, to relate one concept to another, and, we are successful, if such a relationship is recognised by the other members of the community as valid or useful.
There is nothing surprising about the observation, that the validity of the structural relationships between a number of concepts, depends on the acclaim and recognition given by others; agreeing that it is so; that it is a useful way to look at things. The utilitarian aspects of such a structural organisation of our concepts and awarenesses may not be immediately apparent, but the sudden ease with which we can now manipulate a large number of ideas that were previously felt to be a burden on our memory capabilities, leads to a remarkable advantage; an intellectual power; a power to manipulate nature, because we have, suddenly, increased our ability to predict the course of on-going events. Such an increase in understanding is felt as a great asset, and, the more obvious the increase in mastery is, the more impressive and persuasive such a conceptual generalisation will appear to the community. No wonder, such insights were, often, jealously guarded and kept secret, because the increase in manipulative powers represented a significant existential advantage.
Insights, correlations and comprehensions are, therefore, essentially similar in nature, and, as always, they are used to increase individual or communal viability, or, power of existence. An insight is an apparently useful correlation, and the remarkable increase in mastery over a series of concepts and ideas leads to practical, existential advantages contributing to the importance of such an insight.
We will see, that a particular way of perceiving reality, a certain way of ordening current concepts that are available to a community, must appear persuasive to others, and, a particular way of looking at reality must have some obvious advantages, otherwise, it would not have come into the focus of conscious awareness. This also means, that other members of the community must have come close to a similar formulation of a particular insight, otherwise, they would not have the ability to recognise it as valid or valuable.
We see, clearly, that the features associated with this process of gradually formulating concepts and insights are "artistic" in nature, because an unusually sensitive individual has been fortunate enough to formulate, most precisely and persuasively, a particular insight. The formulation of a concept or idea takes place largely subconsciously, but it may receive a quick and widespread, if anonymous, recognition, if it is close to the subconscious notions and judgements of the other members of a community. These mechanisms are similar to the recognition of an artistic expression that happens to come along at the right time.
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Chapter 2
The logic of non-scientific idea structures.
Manipulative abilities and the truth.
Insights of wisdom.
The development of understanding.
The possibilities of education.
Recognising a truth and the sensation of beauty.
The haphazard acceptance of the truth.
Besides the generalised nature of our conceptual awarenesses, the element of recognition provides another key in our understanding of understanding, and, it has become an important feature in our attempts to formulate a comprehensive idea about the processes of comprehension. An idea that is not recognised, dies like a seed that has fallen into infertile soil, and, if recorded and validated, by chance, through the vagaries of historical or cultural transmission, it will be another example of the numerous incidences, where an idea was expressed ahead of its time. The opposite may happen also. The current structural organisation of our awarenesses may have rejected a large number of ideas that seemed to be quite viable and useful in the past, and were, therefore, widely accepted.
At times, we have difficulties understanding, why a large body of images and concepts was, or still is, acceptable as a satisfactory perception of reality, especially, if we would label them, now, as superstition or witchcraft. We can only conclude, that, at a certain stage of human development, such ideas were "logical" and fully comprehensible, and, we have to assume, that this type of interpretation and structuring of the mental imagery was considered useful. We tend to forget the large differences that exist between our present reality images and those of, e.g., Medieval times. We only have to look at such concepts as the stars, the Universe, the earth, or the natural geological and meteorological phenomena, to remind ourselves about these differences.
In the Age of Faith, the literal belief in a Divine Revelation was an unquestioned Truth for most people in Europe, and, only the shocking observations of the astromoners were, eventually, responsible for a gradual fading of the certainty, that an Absolute Reality had been revealed in the divinely inspired Christian Scriptures.
Let us come back, for a moment, to this aspect of "recognising the truth", where the validity of a truth is acknowledged, intuitively, because of the advantage that is felt to exist in a specific generalising or structuring concept. It is like finding a valuable tool, or creating a powerful weapon. We can now master our environment much easier, and, we can manipulate our natural surroundings and other lifeforms to our advantage. We may experience a powerful surge of confidence, perhaps, even, a feeling of beauty.
While the young and adolescents use the conceptual structures of knowledge and insight, primarily, as a channel to guide their elan vital in a more or less egocentric manner, the insights of the older generations and those struggling with an obvious decline in their health or vitality, are mainly used to adjust to increasingly painful pressures upon their existence. An insight that makes it easier to accept the irrevocable course of nature, may become a graceful adaptation to the inevitable decline and death of our individual existence, and, the beauty of such an adaptation lies in the fact, that a graceful resignation to the inevitable course of events, reduces, to a remarkable extent, a futile struggle and paralysing anxiety to hold-on to the powers of life which are slowly ebbing away. The fearful egocentricity of the senescing individual may be transformed by such insights to a mentally relaxed state, and, these insights may, therefore, liberate unsuspected quantities of vital energies.
Insights of wisdom are, indeed, well-ordened mental structures. They represent correlations of experiences, gained during a life-long exposure to conflicting impulses, where the all-consuming, egocentrically oriented energy-expenditure of anxiety, regret or bitterness has been liberated in a joyous conversion by focussing our attention upon the problems of other people. Such a conversion is, undoubtedly, one of the most beautiful and remarkable changes in human outlook. The sincere attitude of compassion and understanding, shown by the wise and old towards struggling youngsters, must function, for many people, as a powerful beacon to orient, or re-orient, their elan vital into a direction that is less bent upon competitive and destructive rivalries.
The recognition of an intellectual insight as a valuable truth forms a foundation for our ability to learn, because very few of us are able to formulate these generalisations for ourselves; from scratch. Most of us require a somewhat tedious and laborious effort at school in order to assimilate these insights, because we can not, as yet, recognise them as a truth. We have no time and insufficient experience for that. We have to memorise these generalised insights with some difficulty during our years of formal education, as we absorb the cultural heritage from our environment. Eventually, most of us will be able to enlarge upon a number of these learned and acquired insights, when we see, suddenly, at some stage during our lifetime, the reason or beauty of some of the concepts we tried, so hard, to learn at school.
However, a carefully and logically presented structure of awarenesses may help us to become more receptive to the recognition of a valid conclusion or insight, and, needless to say, the true value of educational expertise and dedication lies in the stimulation of such an experience of recognition. Unfortunately, many teachers are not fully aware of the psychology of learning, and, they fail to see, with a flash of insight, the value of the material they are teaching. If the teacher transmits, rather mechanically, a series of data or images to the younger generations, just because it is his job, how can one expect the young audience to experience the delight of a true insight?
The recognition of a concept as being valid or true is an important foundation for the experience of beauty and confidence. If an individual has worked hard to obtain an insight, the emotional investment is high and one becomes ripe for a "blinding flash" of recognition, but, often, the insight that is recognised as a truth, becomes a somewhat haphazard choice, since the stage of development of the human mind determines, to a large extent, the moment the mind is ready for such an insight; and, almost anything may do.
It will be useful to analyse, more in detail, the psychological factors that are involved in our decision-making processes, because they determine our readiness to accept a certain insight with a significant degree of fervor or conviction. We will do so in several of the sketches in this series, but, at this time, we want to look ahead at some of the results. It may, indeed, be somewhat startling to come to the conclusion, that our belief structures are mainly the result of chance-happenings and accidental contacts. It seems so haphazard and without purpose, to believe, that the contacts we happened to experience during the formative stages of our lives, (when we were most ready to accept a certain structure of beliefs), determined, what we now believe to be absolutely true.
Let us go back to the mechanisms of understanding, and, it would be fair to recapitulate our two major conclusions, as follows. First of all, our word symbols, names, ideas, etc., are generalisations of an infinitely large and varied number of sense impressions that have been classified into categories of similarities, and, we have no reason to believe, that the names of our most tangible and concrete concepts are anymore valid or "real" than our subsequent generalisations or abstractions, which concern themselves, primarily, with the relationships between the various concepts and ideas we have abstracted from our sense impressions.
Secondly, comprehension is, in essence, the mental faculty of structuring and ordening a body of concepts. This ability results in a remarkable dexterity in handling a large volume of concepts. The process of formulating a generalisation is essentially artistic in nature, since it is the culmination of many previous, less explicit, more tentative and fragmentary efforts to formulate a coherent idea. Recognition of the validity and usefulness of a concept or idea is only possible, if people have come close to formulating a similar concept and idea, and, we know, now, that the act of recognition is necessary, before a concept or idea can be accepted as a "truth".
The process of recognition underlies the understanding, as well as the spread of emotional reaction patterns. The act of recognition forms the foundation for the experience of beauty and wisdom, as well as exuberance and confidence, or, even, arrogance and over-confidence. We recognise the validity of conceptual structures, primarily, in a conscious or intellectual sense, and, it is obvious, that the intellectual form of recognition is much more clear-cut compared to an intuitive or emotional mechanism of recognition. It is, therefore, easier to describe than the comprehension of emotional states, or the recognition of moods and attitudes.
An intuitive or emotional form of recognition or comprehension is characterised by the ability to "feel" the mood of another individual, or, by identifying with an individual, whose activities and attitudes are tacitly acknowledged as a worthwhile ideal to emulate. Such an intuitive comprehension is philogenetically a much older form of understanding, and precedes, without a doubt, any form of verbalisable or conscious awareness.
The distinction between conscious or intellectual comprehension on the one hand, and, an emotional or intuitive recognition on the other, is never complete, however, and, as we will discuss later, the intellectual activities of the human being are only a rather narrow, specialised aspect of the overall range of our behavioural reaction patterns. Intellectual activities represent the behaviour of the human being in the "emotionally neutral zone", but, a state of emotional neutrality is an unstable point of balance, and, at any time, the tendency for an emotional flux to colour our behaviour, may re-assert itself.
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Chapter 3
Attitudes of wisdom.
Knowledge and the process of senescence.
Understanding and the ability to cope with stress.
The certainty of death.
Acts of faith and the reliance upon understanding.
Let us come back to the assertion, that wisdom is a form of comprehension, and, we will later explore the relationships between comprehension and intelligence. We have indicated, that wisdom is, primarily, a change in attitude, where we accept, without frustration or resentment, the circumstances under which we find ourselves. These circumstances are likely to place some limitations on our aspirations, be it because of poverty or old age, sickness or mistakes. If we are still living under circumstances with near limitless possibilities, we belong to a generation of healthy and privileged youngsters, who are able to channel their enormous vitality into objectives of egocentric achievement or communal calamity.
It would be wrong, however, to imply, that all vigorous adolescents are egocentric in their outlook, but, let us not forget, that, even, the many cultural guidelines with moral commitments, (such as the desire to help or to contribute to society), are, often, "appropriated" by these young people in a quest for personal fulfillment, regardless, how altruistic their intentions may be.
Wisdom begins, whenever the limitations of our existence are beginning to show themselves clearly, and, the reality of these limitations has been frankly admitted. Then, we try, once again, to comprehend our situation and the circumstances of those around us, and, we try to re-structure an enlarged framework of conceptual relationships, which makes it clear to us, that we are part of this gigantic process of life, death and evolution. Irrealistic goals are re-adjusted or abandoned, and, we know, that we have reached the final level of achievement in our climb on the social hierarchy. It is unlikely, that we will accomplish much more, and, we are aware, that, from now on, we will gradually fade from the stage of social interactions.Comprehension and acceptance may take many forms. Those of us fortunate enough to have had a wide exposure to the cultural influences of our environment, should be able to come to a reasonably refined image of the essence of life and death, as well as the role and function of the individual in relation to his social surroundings. Others may have to rely upon a narrowly defined religious program of personal salvation, or, perhaps, a concept of scientific agnosticism, in order to sustain themselves during a bewildering decline. Some will hardly appreciate the changes that have taken place, until they are quite old and lonely after the death of their friends and families, because they have been buoyed upon this comforting sea of friends and relatives, all their lives.
Whatever circumstances we may find ourselves in, we have to cope with changes, misfortunes and disappointments, or, even, the outright hardships of poverty, infirmity and neglect. To varying degrees, we all have to cope with the stress of unfulfilled ambitions and desires, loneliness, as well as a chaotic input from the social surroundings. A measure of stress, we all have to tolerate and cope with. Some rationalisations, or, even, deliberate distortions of our perceptions will have to be made, in order to adjust and find a measure of happiness. We will have to comprehend, to some extent, what is happening to us, our friends, neighbours and relatives, as well as the world around us, while we become aware, that, every day, the reality of death has come a step closer. How can we avoid to become somewhat wise and tolerant?
How do we begin to understand ourselves? The most common and pragmatic approach is a comparison with people who are less fortunate. However, such an approach is not really a method of understanding but an important and powerful shift in attitude. Rather than emphasising to what extent we are failing in our projected goals and ideals, we see, how much more we have compared to others. This is a powerful mechanism to overcome self-pity and self-centered anxieties, and, it induces, at times, a strong flux of gratitude, but, it does not really explain much.
The realisation that strength and health are declining, together with the inevitability of death, at some time in the future, force us, one way or another, to formulate some beliefs about the essence of life and death, as well as the crux of human existence. Religious ideas and concepts of the common pool of notions and beliefs have always been the traditional source of faith and strength for a community, and, indeed, the unresolved questions about life and death find their answers and comforts, usually, in a religious context.
A pre-packaged belief is, indeed, necessary for most people, because few of us have the time, or the ability, to search for new ideas or more satisfying answers and attitudes. In our complex, modern societies, the varied and contradictory beliefs held by different groups of people, have eroded a sense of certainty, in particular, after the glory of an absolute Christian Truth faded into a variety of confusing factions that are still clinging, tenaciously, to some degree of jurisdiction over man`s morals and beliefs. However, these feuding factions of a shattered Faith are hardly coherent enough to restore, once more, a widespread, confident image of Divine Certainty.
Regardless, what we believe to be true, our main problem seems to be to rid ourselves from this crippling, egocentric anxiety; this obsessive concern about our own existence. We have to realise, that the price we have to pay for a peaceful acceptance of an impending death, is a serious and successful effort to come to terms with the basic biological instinct to stay alive.
If we want to experience a peaceful, tranquil existence in relation to our environment, and, vis a vis the knowledge of certain death, we will have to accept, that there is a need to modify the instinctive drive to exist, primarily, for our own benefit. First, we will have to acknowledge, explore and analyse the existence of opposing force-fields within our own individual existence, as well as in the many conflicts that are taking place between competing lifeforms.
We can overcome our innate existential anxieties to some extent by an act of faith; by placing our trust in Providence and the Mercy of God. For the price of a true belief in, and commitment to, a process of Divine Redemption, we offer our anxieties and existential needs to our God, and we accept, we have to accept, in full, the consequences and guidelines our Faith gives us.
For those of us, who are unwilling, or unable, to come to such a behavioural act; for those, who believe, that life, struggle and death are natural processes, the period of decline, disease and death represents difficult times, because they force us to reflect upon the transience of life and upon the natural limitations of existence for all life processes, while we try to mitigate the suffering and anxiety that seem so inevitably linked to our conscious existence.
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Chapter 4
Moral behaviour and its founding beliefs.
Limitations of the scope of moral attitudes.
The way to a natural ethic.
The relationships between knowledge and behaviour.
Many people in the past have concluded, that moral behaviour is only possible within the context of a religious belief structure, and, it seems sensible to believe, that a successful social organisation has to be based upon stringent moral guidelines with religious sanctions.
Modern morality has also been attempted in the form of a social dogma, without religious sanctions. Nevertheless, stringent guidelines remain an important way to enforce a code of moral behaviour, even, if rational persuasion of the validity of the social dogma plays a dominant role in forging a measure of social cohesion. Yet, this is often insufficient, and, it is difficult to believe, that we understand ourselves, now, sufficiently to cope, in an emotionally neutral framework of concepts, with all the stresses of living in a complex environment.
A stoic acceptance of the harsh realities of life and death may have been an adequate attitude, when the power to manipulate events seemed to have been quite limited, but now, we can change and influence natural happenings to a degree we did not even expect a short while ago, and, we do not accept, anymore, existing social relationships with an attitude of passive resignation to a divinely ordained status-quo. Yet, at the same time, we notice a remarkable lack of control over the many undesirable side-effects of our actions, as well as the changing moods and aspirations of ourselves and the people around us.
We may have learned to see, that an increased individual security within a social environment is paid for with a willingness to accept compromises and limitations on individual ambitions, but, we have not learned, as yet, to extend our sphere of concern to an area that is much larger than our immediate social environment . Internationally, we still act, by and large, in a law-less, opportunistic power-struggle, even, if contacts and dialogue are clothed by our diplomats in vague subtleties and an occasional deliberate "mis-information" in order to retain support from the law-abiding citizens of their nations. Communal sentiments on a national scale are still sluggish and undifferentiated, and most of us fall victim to the subtle bias and selective reporting of our news-media.
But, it is possible to formulate a natural ethic that is able to regulate the behaviour between individuals and nations without resorting to the dogmas of a religious faith. There is a solution to the problem of existential anxiety. We can accept decline and death in a peaceful frame of mind, but we have to work hard at building-up an image of understanding. Just a the religious solution requires a full commitment, as well as an act of genuine trust and abandonment, so will the non-religious believer in his particular agnostic or scientific reality have to formulate a genuinely satisfying answer to his questions, before he can equal the religious believer in peace of mind.
We will try to show in the course of many efforts, most of them undoubtedly less than completely satisfactory, that our biological heritage gives us a start for the mechanisms of global socialisation, as well as an emotionally neutral and intellectually satisfying comprehension of our existence. We shall also point out, that we have to build upon this biological heritage an increasingly important cultural structure of concepts and guidelines with a global relevance. This framework of cultural guidelines will require an ever greater component of consciously chosen decisions and attitudes, based on carefully crafted concepts of global relevance, and, the success of this ambitious effort will depend on an ever more dominant role of our collective decision-making abilities.
The time has passed, that we may consider "culture" to be the haphazared growth and equally haphazard preservation of diverse, often chaotic expressions of the human mind. In the future, a review of historical events will show an ever greater contribution by carefully planned actions, rather than the chance-happenings of victory and defeat.
A natural ethic will have to overcome the fatal flaw of dogma; the belief, that a truth is a static and unassailable mental image. A natural ethic will have to be based upon the acceptance of all human beings within the society of mankind by virtue of their existence, and, not on the basis of professed beliefs.
We will always treasure the developmental steps of humanity, and, we will, often, look back with nostalgia at an era of the past, where desirable goals and accomplishments seemed to have been achieved to a greater extent than is possible at the present. However, we will learn to see, also, that the past is only a mental image we create and interpret in the present, and, we will learn to see the influence of our projections and attitudes of hope on the perception of our realities, as we try to analyse and learn from what has happened before.
Comprehension requires, therefore, an understanding of our mechanisms of existence, as well as an insight into the relationships between knowing and behaving. We can not, anymore, make a simple distinction between faith and reason, because man seems to have swung, too often, back and forth between those apparent antipodes. The fact, that we have swung back and forth between faith and reason, shows, that it should not be a simplistic choice of either one or the other. Unless we learn to see, clearly, how much we believe when we think to behave rationally, and, how much rational thought has gone into religious belief structures, we will continue to tread this endless see-saw.
At the same time, we should be able to recognise, that an abandonment to a dogmatic belief structure will trap us, again and again, into the rigid mold of an absolute certainty, and, we will come to realise the high price we have to pay for absolute certainty. This price is the inevitability of dissent and the need to oppress it.
An attitude of reason that has not been trapped by the fallacy of an absolute truth, can adjust to changing circumstances, and, an attitude of understanding can open the door to tolerance, moderation and compassion. An intellectualism that is scornful of emotional behaviour is blind and dull as a behavioural tool, but, a fervent belief structure reveals a rigid behaviour pattern causing endless harm and death.
We always seem to hanker for a durable peace of mind. However, let us try to avoid the ironic pitfall, that we sow the seeds of misery and destruction, every time we find our tranquility and happiness in the rigidity of a divinely revealed reality of Absolute Certainties.
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Chapter 5
A review of the methods used in the search for contemporary reality.
The importance of intuitive judgements.
Emotionality and emotional neutrality.
The judgement functions of the brain.
The "free will"; physiological versus deliberate or voluntary evaluations and choices.
Before we proceeed any further with the ambitious task of outlining a, hopefully, widely acceptable image of our human essence, we should consider, and analyse, some of the methods chosen to accomplish such an undertaking. It should be clear, by now, that the range of concerns we have touched upon, is so wide, that it takes-in numerous fields of specialised knowledge. Understandably, such a wide-ranging discussion, (associated with the task of trying to synthesise a somewhat comprehensive picture of the totality of knowledge), involves broad, generalising statements, which can, often, only allude to the origin and justification of such statements.
In spite of the fact, that most generalised and sweeping statements could be proven, (or, at least, given a semblance of proof by laboriously tracing the reasons for making these statements, as well as the sources upon which a statement has been based), it can not be denied, that, in many instances, the process of tracing the background of a generalised statement is almost impossible, since the judgement about the validity of a generalised statement becomes a predominantly intuitive process.
Intuition is an interesting phenomenon, and, it may well be appropriate to outline, here, some of the characteristics and mechanisms involved in this vague and difficult concept of "intuition". The word "intuition" implies, that the decision or judgement is not wholly based on a consciously realised fact of verbalisable knowledge, nor, has it been based on a deductable chain of logical reasoning. This means, that it may not have the same validity or persuasiveness as a scientifically elaborated opinion. Yet, even, a casual analysis of our behaviour will show us, that, we all, scientists included, are resorting to intuitive judgements, many times a day.
As a matter of fact, all important decisions have a large, intuitive component, even, if we fail to recognise the fact that this is the case. We all are aware of those instances in our decision-making responses, where the choice seems to have been made quickly and surely, and, we subsequently "rationalised" our response by giving a reasonable explanation for this choice. It may well be argued, that no choice is really possible without a large element of intuitive decision-making, since, in every choice, we have to evaluate the relative significance of the incoming sense impressions, as well as the memory-traces and conceptual data contained within our mental imagery, and, these activities occur, primarily, at an intuitive level.
On many occasions, we try to minimise the intuitive contribution to this process of making a conscious choice or decision, but, it remains an easily acknowledged fact, that an undertone of intuition, or "feeling", plays a part in assigning a certain degree of significance to the "evidence" at hand. While we are justifiably proud of our achievements to minimise overt emotional or intuitive factors in this process of coming to a rational decision, we often rely, and have to rely, on an intuitive evaluation to help us arrive at a particular decision.
Let us consider a simple example of a choice that does not seem to be related to the contents of our subconscious awarenesses, and yet, it is intuitive in nature. The decisions involved in our ability to execute a movement, (be it the simple act of picking-up a glass of water, the buttoning of a shirt, or, the more complex acts of driving a bicycle or a car), the detailed execution of all these motoric decisions takes place on a subconscious level.
Physiological analysis has shown the enormously complex operations at work, whenever these events are analysed at the level of cellular mechanisms. It becomes obvious, that there is a constant and rapid feed-back flow of information in the form of sensory data, (flowing back from our muscles, skin, tendons, eyes, equilibrium organs, etc.), in order to help us execute the desired motoric functions smoothly. In this example, as well as in many others, we are able to note, that our brain evaluates, analyses and judges a myriad of sensory data, (taking place primarily and, sometimes, completely outside the sphere of our conscious awareness). We note, also, that these evaluations are checked, subconsciously, against data that are available in our brain. The mechanisms of judgement and the volume of memory data that have been stored in the brain, exceed, therefore, by far, the verbalisable mental processes of concept-formation.
Certainly, the evaluative processes we can be aware of, are, philosophically, by far the most interesting and the most important, since we feel, with some justification, that this element of our existence is most closely associated with our ideas about human essence. However, it would be erroneous to assign to our brain only judgement and evaluative functions associated with the faculty of conscious evaluation. These aspects of conscious evaluation and decision-making are felt, subjectively, as a "free will", because they convey to us a sense of responsibility for the choices that have to be made.
We can safely state, that a large part of the brain is engaged in a process of "physiological decision-making", or "subconscious evaluation". The simple tasks of walking, moving, seeing, hearing, as well as many tasks that require a measure of manual dexterity, all these processes occur, primarily, at a level beyond or below our conscious or verbalisable awarenesses. They are part of our innate functions or "biological heritage", and, the physiological possibilities, given to us by the inheritance of our genetic code, are, fortunately, up to now, reasonably well preserved and sheltered from our manipulative and often destructive tampering.
Beyond this physiological inheritance, (containing, nevertheless, a learned component in the abilities that are acquired during the early unfolding of individual potentials), we have to concern ourselves, also, with a large field of awareness experiences that have been assimilated by the growing human being during early development. We will see, later, in more detail, how these experiences occur, but, let us for the time being accept the generalised statement, that a large part of our early experiences have a great deal of existential significance.
It has become clear to our scrutinising minds, that a large input of experiences, with an ill-defined balance between positive and negative influences, is necessary for a youngster to develop a useful and socially acceptable behaviour pattern. These factors are complex and difficult to analyse with precision, but it seems fair to say, that a youngster has to experience a balanced input of early sensory experiences. The positive experiences are represented by a sufficient degree of shelter and encouragement, guidance and affection. These are necessary in order to withstand the inevitable stresses and puzzling inequities arising from contacts with other people. However, there are also good reasons to believe, that the absence or insufficient input of limiting, inhibitory or somewhat unpleasant experiences will lead to a defective development of the personality, because there will, then, be an intuitive imbalance between egocentric and altruistic concerns. As we know, the attitude of altruism represents a valuable and flexible sensitivity to the needs and aspirations of other people.
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Chapter 6
The importance of early life experiences.
The formation of an emotional ground-tone.
The idealised situation of emotional neutrality in scientific attitudes and activities.
The role of intuition in science.
Intuitive judgements and the expert.
Let us explore the observation, that many of our experiences in early life have a remarkable influence on the emotional aspects of our behaviour, later in life. The "conscience", (the ethical or moral outlook of an individual), is, at least partly, shaped by these early contacts and experiences, because they determine, to a large extent, our attitudes towards our social environment and ourselves, later in life, and, they determine, therefore, also, to what extent we will be able to conform to social requirements.
Yet, most of these early childhood experiences are forgotten, or, at least, they are not available as individually remembered experiences against which subsequent experiences can be judged. Rather, the generalised existential significance of these experiences begins to form an overall inclination, a general bias, or "an emotional ground-tone", of the behavioural responses taking place throughout life. These early childhood experiences determine, to a remarkable extent, whether an individual will be defensive and suspicious, or trustful and exuberant, when interacting with the other members of society.
I would not like to suggest that we have a clear picture, how a personality is formed, or, how it functions throughout life. I am only referring, in general terms, to the importance of emotionally coloured, or existentially significant experiences in early and very early childhood. The total number of experiences an individual is exposed to during a lifetime, is so large, so complex, (and the individual's reactions to these complex experiences must depend, to some extent, on genetic and constitutional factors as well), that it is impossible to predict the outcome of a personality development, even, if a reasonably complete and accurate account of these experiences would be available.
Of course, one complicating factor, here, is our own subjective judgement of the significance of an experience, especially, when we have to make this judgement for someone else's experiences. We may safely assume, that, in most instances, we do not have a clue, what the really significant experiences were for any particular individual or child, nor, do we know, how a child really reacted to a series of experiences, since the significance of an experience is often modified by subsequent experiences. Let us just say, that a very large part of our judgement functions remains outside the control of our rational evaluations, and, sometimes, these judgement functions are totally unavailable to us as a conscious experience or a deliberate choice.
We have mentioned, that our biologically inherited, "physiological" reaction patterns are concerned with the motoric and sensory integration of our behavioural responses, but the realm of personality development involves, also, a field of experiences, whose significance we are, for the most part, only dimly aware of. It is, therefore, obvious, that almost all our daily decisions are made without a completely rational foundation, and, it is clear, that we often devise a rational sequence of arguments to justify a decision that has already been made.
Perhaps, we can find in the modern techniques of the scientific evaluation an element of pure, rational behaviour, where the merits of a certain decision are weighed, carefully, but, it is appropriate to point out, here, that this truly objective, unemotional rationality exists more as an idealised goal to be achieved, than as an actual achievement during the practice of making scientific observations. Yet, the scientific method of investigation and judgement has been based on the recognition, that a careful and rational evaluation is essential for every serious attempt to come to a generally valid picture of reality.
There are numerous examples in the various fields of science, where scrupulously honest scientific workers have become aware of the influence on their work by their hopes and fears, as well as the existential significance of their failures and successes. It is also interesting to note, that, on numerous occasions, the development of an image of scientific reality has been arrived at by an essentially intuitive judgement process, and, that, later, a laborious network of arguments supplied the "proof", or the persuasive, circumstantial evidence for the validity of such an intuitively formulated perception of reality.
Obviously, in spite of the occasional intuition that proved to be "right", or "very persuasive", as corroborative evidence unfolded, there were numerous ideas, images, conclusions, or conceptual frameworks that lost their usefulness rapidly; whenever it became evident that important areas of scientific facts and experiences could not be accomodated into such a conceptual framework of coherent relationships.
How important intuitive judgements are, becomes also apparent, when we review the large field of "art appreciation". Here, judgements are, often, not only intuitive, but somewhat arbitrary as well; indicating that, ocasionally, these judgements do not even consider any kind of rational balance between the various factors at work. Similarly, we realise, or should realise, that outside our field of specialised knowledge, we express opinions and make decisions that are based on intuitive judgements, and, rarely, do we feel an embarrassing void in our knowledge, when we are confronted with the need to make decisions or express an opinion.
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Chapter 7
Scientific discipline and the schooling of the scientist.
The importance of widely acceptable concepts.
The role of authority and its relationships to the aspect of "credibility".
The importance of a personal choice when evaluating contradictory information with similar degrees of credibility or authority.
Society and the need to make individualised behavioural choices.
Let us go back, for a moment, to this field of endeavour, where we try, honestly and "objectively", to balance the arguments, before coming to a decision; where we try to classify the "data", without "jumping to conclusions"; where we are engaged in essentially scientific methods of judgement and investigation, adhering, as closely as we can, to our professional skills, while excercising a disciplined behaviour of thought and evaluation. The word "discipline" acknowledges the constant vigilance we have to exercise in order to avoid being swept to premature conclusions or biased interpretations, and, at the same time, we recognise that we "learn" this discipline, as we are being schooled in a particular profession or field of knowledge.
Here, we touch on an important feature. We learn, not only, the discipline of carefully controled thought and decision-making by accepting, by far, the greater part of our knowledge and methods as pre-conceived concepts, (by accepting, as true, concepts, previously elaborated by others), but, we also short-circuit an enormous amount of first-hand learning by this process of acceptance. It is, therefore, obvious, that our entire scientific reference system, as well as the primary methods of investigation and interpretation, are almost always accepted as "truths", whose validity we do not determine for ourselves. These tools determine, entirely, in what terms, and, in what manner we evaluate the "raw data" of the conceptual materials or facts of observation. We tend to follow, therefore, a certain "school of thought" that has been built upon foundations laid by others, and, our way of thinking is, to a very large extent, determined by the schooling we have received.
Of course, this is not really different from the fact, that our experiences from early childhood, as well as the nature of the social environment we grew-up in, determined, to a large extent, how we react, now, and, how we see ourselves for the rest of our lives. This means, then, that we can not overestimate the influence of a factor, (operative in all interhuman contacts), which we could summarise under the term "authority" or "credibility".
Let us briefly and, perhaps, somewhat summarily, outline the importance and influence of the factor of "credibility". By the term credibility, we understand an abstraction of the degree of trust and confidence we place in the story, uttering, opinion, etc., of someone else. We all react with varying degrees of "credulity", when we are in contact with other people in our social surroundings, and, we will see, later, that the credulity we display towards "an authority", depends on his or her "credibility" or "authority". Authority and hierarchical positioning correlate closely. These mechanisms determine, whom we admire, trust and accept leadership from, since it is those people we tend to believe implicitly.
The linkage between leadership and credibility is a fascinating subject we will analyse in detail, later in these studies. Let us, for the time being, only mention this factor, and, we are able to see, even, after a short reflection on the matter, that almost all our knowledge, opinions and beliefs are formed as a result of the fact, that we have believed a number of people; civic leaders, members of the clergy, writers, thinkers, neighbours, parents or friends.
How much knowledge and insight we have gained through personal experiences, or, as a result of our own investigations, is, on reflection, indeed, difficult to say, and, as we have mentioned above, our own, personal investigations, (which we may have carried-out for one reason or another), are inevitably expressed in terms reflecting, once again, "learned" items of knowledge and insight, or, concepts and ideas that have been accepted on authority of the cultural code under which we have grown-up.
In summary, we may safely state, that almost all our concepts, including all our words and ideas, have been accepted on the credibility of our teachers, parents and leaders. This process started long before entering formal schooling, and never ends, since, until we die, we are in constant contact with a stream of information that is coming to us from all sides. This information comes from other people, and, we generally believe, what we hear, and, we hear, what we want to believe.
One may ask, then; to what extent are we making any objective observations? How can we excercise our judgements in such a way, that we can really trust to have made an objective observation? In spite of the fact, that our opinions and judgements are largely determined by what we have accepted as true throughout the years, quite early in life, we are already confronted with the perplexing problem of having to choose between contrasting or contradictory information, opinions and facts. These contradictory opinions and facts are often coming to us from different people, or, sometimes, from the same authority. Then, many contradictory ideas and tid-bits of information may come to us with an equal degree of authority or credibility. Under these circumstances, it becomes increasingly important to develop a personal, honest and balanced system of judgement, where we have to assign a different degree of credibility, or value, to the contradictory concepts and data we are receiving. In other words; we have to make an individualised choice.
In spite of cultural and circumstantial similarities, our individual lives are so different, that, at least, in our complex, contemporary societies, the ability to come to a personal evaluation or judgement about the validity of our sense impressions, is quite important. A remarkable degree of tolerance for an individualised behavioural choice is being shown by many large and complex, contemporary societies. This is, at the same time, a rich privilege for each individual member, as well as a measure of dubious unpredictability for the society as a whole. The ever varying levels of tolerance for the mechanisms of individualisation, (varying from time to time in the same society, and differing, markedly, from one society to another), is another topic for discussion. We will approach these topics, when we analyse the meaning of individualisation for the individual as well as the society at large.
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Chapter 8
The impossibility of true objectivity.
The inevitability of intuitive factors taking part in our decision-making functions.
A review of mental mechanism.
We have seen, that a truly objective evaluation of our sense impressions, free from intuitive, non-rational elements, is an "idealised abstraction", and does not occur in reality. At the same time, we acknowledge the immense importance of having learned the value of the desire and the effort to achieve such a form of "objective" judgement, which is becoming steadily more important in the evolution of human existence.
What, then, is intuitive judgement? In the concept of an "intuitive judgement", we acknowledge, that, essentially, the mechanisms and reasons for reaching a certain decision, or making a certain behavioural choice, are far from clear to us, and, these reasons are certainly not verbalisable in a fully conscious manner. The amount of information that is being used by us in our evaluative processes, is far greater than we can possibly be aware of. This means, that we are unable to enumerate and verbalise or conceptualise all the factors that play a role. A very large part of our total sensory experiences is not available for verbalisation by our intellect, and yet, this material is being used, subconsciously, when we arrive at a decision. While we are unable to enumerate or verbalise all the details of the relevant memory-traces, we can, at times, be aware of the general nature of this memory-content.
The specific instances of many experiences have been lost for good, in the sense, that we can not recall, by far, the greater portion of these experiences, and yet, they have been classified and categorised by our brain at the time they took place. Often, the existential significance of these experiences is the only generalised abstraction we are vaguely aware of.
The generalised abstraction of an "existential significance" gives rise to a "mood". This is the emotional "ground-tone" that is evoked in us by certain experiences. Sometimes, we are able to remember, why a particular experience produces or evokes a certain emotional ground-tone or feeling, since we clearly recognise or remember a similar experience with a great significance for us. However, by far the most frequent occurrence of a mood is a vague feeling. This may be a notion of dread or joy, a feeling of aversion or beauty, which has been evoked by a certain experience, but we lack the ability to explain or pin-point the reasons, why such a mood or emotion has been stimulated within us.
Intuition, then, is, in essence, a judgement, based upon a sum-total of experiences. This sum-total of experiences plays an important role in our contemporary judgements and is far greater than we can bring under words or remember. Some degree of intuition plays, probably, a role in all our decision-making processes; regardless, how hard we strive to make a behavioural choice as logically balanced, or, as rational and objective as possible.
This realisation is significant, especially, when we consider the technique of summarising conceptual knowledge by delineating, somewhat intuitively, a common denominator as a generalisation. We have stated, that all concept formation, even, the most specific forms of knowledge, are, in essence, based upon a generalising action of the mind, where literally millions upon millions of sensory impulses bombard, continuously, our organic sensory systems. These sense impressions are sifted, classified and, occasionally, summarised into verbalisable awarenesses and concepts.
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Chapter 9
Focusing our attention and observations.
The analytical aspects of the scientific inquiry.
The fragmentation of the sciences.
Relevance of scientific data.
The need for a conceptual synthesis.
Existential factors in scientific endeavours.
The risk of synthesising a broad perspective.
Speculative synthesis and the role of the philosopher.
The limitations of contemporary philosophy.
We can focus our attention upon a specific awareness, and, we can always perceive a number of questions, whenever we focus our attention, critically and persistently, on a small area of our sensory experiences. A question represents the awareness, that the logical, connecting framework of concepts, related to this specific area, leaves a hiatus in our understanding. By the simple act of asking about detailed cause-effect relationships of previously accepted, large-scale correlations of conceptual entities, we open-up a whole new field of inquiry. Similarly, we may begin to notice differences between observations and expectations as a result of our detailed attention to a small field of intense scrutiny. We may see differences or discrepancies between objects or events, which were previously unnoticed or not given any significance.
This is the analytical side of the scientific method of investigation. The development of numerous technical aids for measuring, sensing or recording phenomena that are normally beyond the range of our senses, has enlarged our observational powers enormously. It is not surprising, therefore, that "data", or individually discernible sense impressions, are coming to us at a great speed with the technical enlargement of our observational capabilities. For this reason, the area of observation had to be divided, time and again, into smaller and smaller fields of endeavour, because the sheer size and variety of the observed data became impossible for one individual to work with. This is the essence of the inevitable process of fragmentation of the sciences into ever smaller areas of concern, whenever we are applying analytical methods of observation and comprehension.
It is sometimes forgotten by our scientists, that understanding these data, implies, by definition, the structuring of a conceptual framework capable of ordening these data into a comprehensible network of categories and cause-effect relationships.
There always exists the possibility to point out, that certain details remain questionable. This makes the scientist understandably hesitant in constructing such a framework of causal relationships, because he fears that his conceptual synthesis may so easily be proven wrong. Every attempt to form a conceptual synthesis leaves the scientist open to severe criticisms, or, even, ridicule, and the savage sentiments and attitudes that are so often displayed within a competitive academic environment, have led, and still lead, many people, engaged in the various scientific fields, to seek shelter in ever smaller, sub-specialised areas of authority.
It is easier to impress one's colleagues with an impatient and somewhat condescending exposition of one's own special field of knowledge, than to boldly make an effort to synthesise the fantastic variety of scientific data that are already available.
The seasoned seniors, who have been tempered by experience and are secure in their position within a specific field of expertise, often make various attempts at such correlative, synthetic efforts; being careful to always show an impressive documentation for their slow and laborious efforts, whenever correlating certain ideas and facts. It is quite understandable, that a self-respecting scientist will not risk the scorn of his colleagues in neighbouring fields by audaciously incorporating a number of well-established scientific disciplines into a really broad framework of conceptual relationships. The risk of expressing himself "wrongly", or, too vaguely, or, showing, unmistakenly, the limitations of his knowledge, are powerful deterrents to such an undertaking.
This field of speculative synthesis used to be a fruitful area for the philosopher, who, usually a lonely thinker and far removed from the pressures of academic prestige and intellectual combat, tried to trace such a bold imagery of unified understanding. However, under the influence of the dominant "church of science", this type of solitary philosophical approach has been abandoned; especially, when the academic position of the philosopher became profitable and acceptable, once again, after it had lost its original position of prominence to the experimental sciences during their great forward surge of the last few centuries.
The academic philosopher has tried to carve-out for himself a small fringe area of concern in a no-man's land of the experimental sciences; somewhere in between the linguists and the mathematicians. He has tried the same scientific methodology of ever increasing scrutiny of a smaller and smaller area of concern, in a somethat slovenly imitation of the analytical sciences. In my view, the results of such contemporary philosophical efforts are not very useful, and, it has resulted in an interminable squabble about meanings, definitions and syllogisms, as well as a rather desperate attempt to wring meaning out of that, which has no meaning. The unfortunate result of this type of philosophical activity has been a complete neglect by these specialised researchers to inform themselves about the activities that are going-on in the rest of the sciences and humanities. They have neglected to note the many fruitful concepts that have been elaborated in widely divergent areas of human endeavour and understanding.
The philosopher has even had difficulties associating himself with the anthropologist, who has also approached his field with the methods of analytical science, as well as the unquestioned faith that he was uncovering an absolutely valid, scientific reality perception. Certainly, the field of anthropology has greatly contributed to our knowledge by enlarging our understanding of human pre-history, as well as the fossil records of early man. The scientific techniques used to describe the phenomena of "primitive" human societies, have led to a wealth of data, but, unfortunately, their integrative efforts have been hampered by the tendency of the social and physical anthropologists to isolate themselves from the biologists, biophysicists, physiologists, neurologists and psychologists.
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Chapter 10
A personal view-point about the role of philosophy.
The futility of retracing scientific descriptions.
The process of intuitive summarising.
The relationships between a philosophical synthesis and the relevant scientific disciplines.
The difficulty of proving generalised statements.
Originality, and the need for recognition, as criteria of validity and relevance.
To me, there can be no doubt, that the task of the philosopher is, essentially, an effort, no matter how difficult and audacious, to integrate, once again, all human knowledge into a workable, comprehensive over-view. Certainly, a philosopher requires a good grasp over, and insight into, the essentials of scientific understanding in many different fields, ranging from physics, cellular physiology and neuro-physiology, to psychology, sociology and anthropology, as well as the sciences of history and religious beliefs. No one will fault the philosopher for not being an expert in anyone particular field, but, there is no reason, why the philosopher, attempting such a monumental task, should not be able to grasp the essentials of all these fields, and many more. Here comes the ability to generalise into play, and, it becomes the only possible method to formulate such a comprehensive over-view of our reality perceptions.
There is nothing to be gained by re-tracing the classic descriptions or view-points of the individual sciences, because a mere summation of the individual fields of science does not lead to an elucidation of the connecting conceptual links. The philosopher should be able to summarise, often intuitively, his understanding of the essential features of a certain area of knowledge, and, he should be able to master his generalised understanding in such a way, that he dares to use these generalised definitions freely and without hesitation, whenever he is building the perspective he is after.
Certainly, at any time, in each sentence, he runs the risk of generalising wrongly; of showing that he missed the essence; that he lost-out on an essential concept of a particular field. This risk has to be taken, far from any considerations about a possible loss of prestige. If the concepts are wrong, let the audience reject his ideas; let him be criticised and corrected, or, let him be mercifully forgotten.
The reaction of the specialist in any one particular field may well be an attitude of impatience with an apparently shallow generalisation within his field, and, he may look, in vain, for a more detailed consideration of his particular area of concern. If this is the reaction of the specialist, then, the philosopher may rest assured, that, at least, his generalisation has not been immediately rejected as erroneous or outdated. Consequently, the usefulness of this generalisation has not been seriously invalidated, and, therefore, the total structure of generalisations will not collapse because of a fatal flaw in one of the conceptual building blocks.
This is the technique I propose to use in this bold and audacious attempt to make sense out of the entire field of human experience and endeavour. By relying on sweeping generalisations when trying to build-up such a comprehensive picture, it will often be difficult for the individual who is completely unfamiliar with a particular field, to grasp the meaning and essence of the generalisation, since I do not intend to elaborate any of the generalisations to such an extent that no prior familiarity with the field is required.
To trace the development of such generalisations is quite difficult, and, as we have indicated before, such an attempt may, often, contribute to an appearance of confusion. As we have mentioned in our discussions about intuitive judgements, reflection, rather than an accent on the most recent knowledge will be the guiding principle for a successful effort to follow these patterns of thought, but, the basic information on which many of these generalisations rest, can be obtained by scanning an encyclopedia or a text-book on a specific subject.
The validity of the generalisations that have been made is, therefore, difficult to "prove", and, for the major part in these writings, I will not even attempt to prove a generalisation, but, from time to time, by analogy or through example, I may be able to show, that, familiarity with a certain field, alluded to in the text, will help to convince the reader of the validity and usefulness of a specific generalisation.
I hope, that other statements, which have not been so obviously validated, will gain credibility by reflection and study. It is not my intention, therefore, to quote specific studies, writers, researchers, or, even, any specific publications. The entire effort of these writings has been concentrated upon an attempt to bring the common denominators of human experience and existence into focus, avoiding, as much as possible, any cultural, ethnical or geographic specifics.
I will freely draw upon my understanding of the sciences, especially, the biological and physical sciences, but, also, from history, the religions, psychology and the social and anthropological fields of knowledge. However, it is not reasonable to expect specific references to any of these fields, because of the arbitrary choice that would be reflected by a specific quotation or reference.
Probably, the most valuable and important requirement for an experience of understanding is the adoption of an attitude of inquiry. All we have to do, as a reader, is to keep an open mind for the interpretation of our daily experiences. It helps, if we are endowed with a tendency to reflect upon what we are, why we behave the way we do, and, why we believe in what we consider to be true. More is not necessary for an understanding of the concerns that have been discussed in these sketches.
I hope, that these attitudes will also be sufficient to generate a measure of appreciation for what has been attempted in these writings. If it affronts all reason; if it is erroneous and unappealing, by all means, throw it out. However, be convinced, that there is far more than meets the eye in a superficial inspection.
I do not claim any particular talent or infallibility in outlining these philosophical ideas, which concern themselves with an understanding of ourselves, now, at this point in history. I do, of course, believe, that these ideas are worthwhile, but, I realise, that the recognition and impact of these ideas may take time to develop.
In spite of the sweeping, and, possibly, somewhat superficial generalisations taken from the various areas of knowledge, the main body of my work is concerned with a new, original and personal effort to come to a comprehensive view of ourselves. If I say, that the effort is new and original, I mean, that it arises out of a genuinely felt need to express these ideas, which have been growing for many years. I mean, that they have not been copied from any one particular source, nor, am I aware of a favourite thinker, religion or influential school of thought that may have influenced my efforts.
If I say, that the effort is new and original, I do mean, that this is genuinely me. These writings are not based on any known model of expression, and yet, I am fully aware of the fact, that these thoughts will only be interesting and attractive, or, perhaps, even, stimulating and provocative, if I am able to reflect many different common denominators of human evaluations, sensations and experiences.
The areas of concern that have been touched upon, reflect my personal interests, and the mode of expression is very much a reflection of the personality I happen to have, but, I hope, that the quality and precision of these thoughts are persuasive enough for most readers to feel a certain affinity with the ideas that have been expressed.
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Summary
The discrepancy between a predicted and an observed event.
The search for a common denominator.
The differentiation of concepts and ideas from a common pool of notions.
The importance of the function of recognition.
Manipulative abilities and the truth.
Insights of wisdom.
The development of understanding.
The possibilities of education.
Recognising a truth and the sensation of beauty.
The haphazard acceptance of the truth.
Knowledge and the process of senescence.
Understanding and the ability to cope with stress.
The certainty of death.
Acts of faith and the reliance upon understanding.
The way to a natural ethic.
The relationships between knowledge and behaviour.
The importance of intuitive judgements.
Emotionality and emotional neutrality.
The judgement functions of the brain.
The "free will"; physiological versus deliberate or voluntary evaluations and choices.
The formation of an emotional ground-tone.
The idealised situation of emotional neutrality in scientific attitudes and activities.
The role of intuition in science.
Intuitive judgements and the expert.
The importance of widely acceptable concepts.
The role of authority and its relationships to the aspect of "credibility".
The importance of a personal choice when evaluating contradictory information with similar degrees of credibility or authority.
Society and the need to make individualised behavioural choices.
The inevitability of intuitive factors taking part in our decision-making functions.
A review of mental mechanism.
The analytical aspect of the scientific inquiry.
The fragmentation of the sciences.
Relevance of scientific data.
The need for a conceptual synthesis.
Existential factors in scientific endeavours.
The risk of synthesising a broad perspective.
Speculative synthesis and the role of the philosopher.
The limitations of contemporary philosophy.
The futility of retracing scientific descriptions.
The process of intuitive summarising.
The relationships between a philosophical synthesis and the relevant scientific disciplines.
The difficulty of proving generalised statements.
Originality, and the need for recognition, as criteria of validity and relevance.
@M.Heuff
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