IN SEARCH OF REALITY II
The Origins of Life
A Study in Thought
by
Marius Heuff
@M.Heuff
Chapter 1Everything changes.
The ubiquitous presence of pressure- or tension-gradients.
Gravity, thermal pressures, chemical potentials.
Energy relationships and chemical transformations.
Fluidity, water, and life's mechanisms
The inundating valley.
The crater and the rim.
The break-through.
Analogies with biochemical processes and the influx of solar energy.Everything changes; a phenomenon already noted and expressed by the ancient Greeks, but, only recently, have we realised, how literally true this is for even such massive and seemingly immobile land-masses as our mountains and continents. The reason why everything changes or moves, is the simple fact, that everything and anything is subjected, at one time or another, to some kind of force it can not resist.
Apart from the ubiquitous presence of the force of gravity, (not only on earth, but throughout the Universe), we are, as animate or inanimate matter, subjected to a variety of forces that create a pressure- or energy-gradient through our systems, and, since no complete rigidity or absolute resistance exists, sooner or later, some sort of a change will take place. Some changes are so quick, that they are difficult to measure, and many atomic and chemical reactions are measured in minute fractions of a second. However, the drift of the continents, the rise and fall of the earth's crust, and the wearing-down of mountains, these events are all measured in many thousands of years.
Everything, all matter on earth, (and let us concentrate for the moment on the events taking place on our planet), is subjected to the force of gravity. In addition, many substances are exposed to thermal gradients that are created by the influx of solar energy, or, the energy-gradients associated with chemical reactions and structural bonding.
The event of a chemical reaction is, in essence, a flow of energy through a number of different substances that are in close contact with each other. These substances are yielding to a chemical energy-gradient by forming or disrupting common electron bonds that are binding the various substances together into some sort of a structural entity. The internal resistance of a substance to such a chemical energy- or pressure-gradient is, however, often considerable, unless the substance is brought into a higher temperature range, or, into a state of dissolution, making the mechanisms of "changing electron configurations" at the points of contact, easier and more likely to occur.
Sometimes, chemical reactions between reactable substances absorb energy during their activities, and the end-product has then a higher energy-content than the original building blocks. Photosynthesis, the building of organic carbo-hydrates from simpler, inorganic building blocks, (such as carbon-dioxide and water), is fueled by the energy of the sun. This is an example of a reaction that absorbs energy, while yielding to the pressure-gradient created by the absorption of solar energy in special, high-energy electron bonds that have been formed by a number of suitable substances.
A chemical reaction can also liberate energy. However, these reactions have already taken place, unless they are protected by a "barrier". These "protected" or potential reactions are unable to take place, unless the temperature of the reactive substances has been elevated, initially, by the influx of an outside source of energy. By elevating the temperature of these potentially reactable compounds, such a reaction is initiated, and then, the reaction becomes, often, rapidly progressive, or, even, explosive, until all the material that can take part in the reaction has been used-up. This is the common mechanism of "burning" or "combustion". After it has been started, it becomes self-perpetuating, until the supply of reactable materials has been exhausted, because the heat, necessary to sustain the reaction, is liberated by the chemical reaction itself.
If this initial addition of energy would not be necessary; if the "internal resistance" to such a chemical transformation would be quite low, the existence of a particular reactable material would not be possible, since all matter would, then, already exist as an "end-product"; after the reaction has taken place. Such a reactive compound would not have a stable "possibility of existence" under normal terrestial conditions, because its low internal resistance to a chemical pressure-gradient would effect a change into a substance that could resist further chemical transformations under normal terrestial conditions. This concept of a "low internal resistance" to an existing pressure- or energy-gradient, plays an enormously important role in our understanding of the life-processes.
We have attempted to visualise the mechanisms of living existence as a water-table, which is slowly rising as a result of a continuous influx of water into a valley. The valley is blocked-off by a dam, or some other obstruction, and, we see, how the water-level explores all sorts of possibilities of existence in a smoothly flowing manner. The reason why the water flows, smoothly, into every nook and cranny, is related to its "fluidity", reflecting a very low internal resistance of water to the leveling force of gravity.
If we visualise, in this slowly inundating valley, the existence of a pit, or a crater, walled by a rim, the water level will, first, have to reach the level of the rim, before the crater can be filled. There is, therefore, an obstacle or a resistance to the flow of water into the crater, caused by the presence of this rim. However, when water starts to flow over the rim, often, a bit of sand or earth is washed away with the rush of water into the pit, and a gully develops through which the water flows, now, much faster, since some of the resistance to the flow of water has been removed.
If the earth is soft and easily washed away, the gully deepens, the resistance lessens, and the flow becomes stronger, until the water-level in the crater has been filled-up to the level of the water-table in the valley. The flow lessens, as the gravitational pressure-gradient gradually diminishes, until the water outside and inside the crater has reached the same level. This means, that there is no more gravitational potential between the water molecules in the valley, and those inside the pit or crater. In terms of potential energy, the water inside and outside the pit has, then, the same value, and, therefore, there is no energy-gradient between the water inside and outside the crater.
Why do we dwell on such a well-known and to everyone familiar phenomenon; an occurrence, so common and obvious, that we hardly give it any thought or attention? First of all, it is a good example of the function of a pressure-gradient through a medium with little or no internal resistance. If the material has a much higher internal resistance, it will not move, or, it will hardly move at all. The earth, forming the crater, as well as the rim, does not level-out under the force of gravity, because there exists a high internal resistance to the force of gravity in every "solid" substance, but, if the earth would be made fluid by a very high temperature, (in the form of lava), the edges of the crater would fill-in the depression, and the force of gravity would level the pit into a smooth plane.
The existence of stable or solid materials under average terrestial conditions, means, that there is a high resistance to any further change from a chemical or gravitational energy-gradient. At least, the existing gradients are not able to overcome the internal resistance of these stable or solid materials. However, from modern physics, as well as our insights into astronomical mechanisms, we have learned, how the crushing forces of gravitational compression within the center of a star are able to overcome, even, the stability of the atomic structures of the various elements that make-up the star. This leads, then, to all kinds of nuclear reactions within the stellar interior. The nuclear transformations, taking place within a stellar interior, are determined by the circumstances and conditions within a particular star, and the occurrence of a nuclear fusion or transformation reaction results in an outpouring of radiant energy that counter-balances, for a while, the gravitational compression forces.
We have, also, become aware of the essential fluidity of the organisms of living existence we have become familiar with in our terrestial environment. This fluidity is expressed, on the one hand, as the viscosity of the cellular protoplasm, but, even more importantly, it is also visible in the fluid, adaptative reactions of the various life-forms as they seek to adapt themselves to changing conditions and circumstances.
Let us go back, for a moment, to the watery environment of the early earth, where, heated by a constant flow of sunlight, a variety of compounds find a possibility to exist. The presence of water indicates a narrow temperature-range of the terrestial conditions, and the accumulation of a large body of water has brought many substances into a state of dissolution, or "being dissolved". This means, that these substances exist in a state of low internal resistance to change. Thermal energy from the sun is flowing, constantly, into this luke-warm sea, and, eventually, some compounds become capable of capturing the energy of the sun's radiation in the form of a "high-energy" chemical or electron bond. This indicates the ability to capture solar energy, not as "heat", (which is a form of thermal agitation of the compound as a whole), but, as a discrete "dislocation" of a specific electron encircling the atomic nucleus of an element. The latter property is an essential feature of many atomic elements that exist in a widely dispersed, gaseous form.
High-energy electron bonds become a source of energy, whenever there are other substances in the neighbourhood that can tap this energy-potential. Otherwise, the energy is likely to be given-off, at some time during the night, as "light" or "luminescence". The characteristics of high-energy chemical bonds include an easy reversibility to the original electron pathways, as well as the possibility to transfer their energy-content to other elements that are themselves not capable of capturing solar energy in this manner.
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Chapter 2
Speculative aspects of biochemical evolution.
Probable mechanisms, seen in a broad philosophical over-view.
The unimaginable vastness of the natural experiment with evolutionary change.
The search for possibilities of existence.
The physical evolution of the earth.
Polymerisations and the interdependence of chemical reactions and their end-products.
The primordial protoplasm, and the interplay between chemical and physical characteristics.
The importance of the phenomenon of a "break-through".Exactly, what sort of complex chemical permutations took place during the early stages of nature's experiment with the formation of organic-chemical compounds, is, largely, a matter for speculation, but the main idea we want to emphasise, here, is the fact, that the absorption of photonic energy from the sun elevated many organic compounds to a higher potential of electro-chemical energy, and, these substances would show relatively little resistance to letting this energy go again. Undoubtedly, a very large part of these sunlight-absorbing compounds would revert back to their original, "pre-excited" state during the darkness of the night, giving-off their energy in a fantastic spectacle of wide-spread (bio)-luminescence.
However, not all electro-chemically absorbed energy from the sun would revert back to light as a form of very early bio-luminescence. The existence of fluid, high-energy chemical or electron bonds became a source of energy for all kinds of organic reaction-patterns, which had now found a possibility to take place.
A constantly reversing energy-flow took place in the "protoplasmic primordium" of the early, shallow, luke-warm terrestial seas because of the fluctuations between day and night. As a result, the pathways of biochemical reaction-patterns penetrated, slowly, further and further into the potential sequences of organic or biochemical events.
This imagery is similar to the tides of flood and ebb. In the imagery of the periodically reversing flow of sea-water, there is a regular elevation of the water-level with an influx of sea-water into a tidal basin during the up-coming tide, and the emptying of this basin, six hours later. This well-known mechanism is comparable to the influx of sun-light into the protoplasmic primordium during day-light hours, and the out-flow of solar energy during the night, primarily, as an early form of bio-luminescence.
The ever further penetration of biochemical reaction-patterns resulted in the actualisation of numerous organic possibilities of existence. This is the essence of the mechanisms that are visualised, here, as the concept of "biochemical evolution". During this process of biochemical evolution, countless substances were seeking and testing, continuously, their possibilities of existence, depending on their particular energy requirements; as well as on the existence, at the right time and location, of other reacting and reactable substances.
We see, then, literally, a sea of fluid, biochemical existence possibilities, which are gradually being transformed from a potential existence into a state of actual, or "actualised", existence. This transformation is a result of the increasing ability of certain compounds to capture energy, or, make use of the presence of a nearby high-energy chemical bond. While the first few organic-chemical compounds must have developed, by chance, the ability to capture the sun's energy in the form of high-energy bonds, once the biochemical energy-source of captured sunlight was available, the rate of biochemical permutations must have increased dramatically, and the opportunity to develop more substances with sunlight-capturing capabilities, was also increased.
The fluidity of chemical, especially, bio-chemical reaction-patterns within this primordial sea of organic possibilities of existence, reveals events that are very similar to the rising water-table in our picture of the inundating valley. The constant influx of water is comparable to the constant capture of a part of the photonic energy of the sun, and, the water that is flowing, smoothly, over the valley's uneven surface, is mirrored in the myriad of biochemical existence possibilities being tested randomly.
Occasionally, the formation of a compound, or a group of compounds, developed by chance, led to the rather sudden possibility for another compound or series of compounds to exist. This could happen by virtue of a sequential energy-transfer that became, then, in essence, a chain-reaction of organic existence possibilities.
In a chain-reaction, the energy of the high-energy chemical bonds flows spontaneously into the direction of "least resistance", or, the easiest possibilities of existence; very much like the flow of water over the rim of a pit or crater, scouring for itself a small path of least resistance. The sudden development of such a flow of energy into a lower and more stable form of energy represents the essence of a "break-through". This idea of a break-through is, not only, fundamental in our understanding of all the life-processes on a biochemical and cellular level, but it explains, also, the many phenomena taking place at the level of multi-cellular and social life-forms, including the behavioural manifestations of human beings.
Even our social developments can all be visualised and grasped under the idea of a "break-through in energy-flow". We will try to show, with a measure of conviction, the large, overall principles that operate in the complex phenomena of all life-forms, including the contradictory and confused manifestations of human behaviour. It will not be easy to capture these phenomena under such a seemingly simplistic concept as a "break-through" in a flow of energy; yet, let us give it a try, and see, how persuasive such an approach can be.
Let us go back, for a moment, to the time, when we imagine the young earth to have cooled-down sufficiently for its water vapours to condense into mighty rain-falls. The water is, now, slowly accumulating into shallow basins. The cloud covers are beginning to break, facilitating the cooling processes and encouraging the temperature-range to come below the boiling point of water. The hot rains dissolve large quantities of solutes and wash them into the emerging, warm or hot seas.
The nature and composition of the earth's inorganic elements can be traced to the evolutionary history of our part of the galaxy, where we visualise the birth and death to have taken place of a number of very large stars. These very large stars forged within their interiors the atomic elements that are present on earth, now, and, these stars spewed their contents back into space at the time of their violent and explosive demise, long before the development of our own solar system took place.
The distance from the sun and the mass of the earth were key factors in determining the existence possibilities of our terrestial atmosphere, as well as the temperature-range of the terrestial eco-systems, allowing water to exist in its fluid form. All the atomic elements we know on earth, including those so important for organic evolution, are, therefore, products of previous stellar evolutionary mechanisms, which took place in a part of the galaxy, which, later, gave birth to our solar system. These atomic elements include hydrogen, (which can also form spontaneously in "empty space"), oxygen, the elements of carbon and nitrogen, as well as a variety of others that played a significant role in the subsequent organisation of these elements during the period of biochemical evolution.
Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen combined into a variety of pre-organic building blocks that were soluble in water, which is itself a combination of oxygen and hydrogen. These pre-organic building blocks had a strong tendency to form long chains in a watery environment, and these chains broke-up again, quite easily, and recombined in a complex and perpetual expression of a "search for possibilities of existence". These early "polymerisations", (as this chain-forming habit is called), took place under conditions that happened to favour such events because of the presence of luke-warm water, and, these biochemical permutations and explorations were, probably, aided, at times, by the energy of lightning-storms, which must have taken place, quite often, during the constant evaporation and condensation of the earth's waters.
The only source of constant energy was the energy of the sun, which heated the waters of the earth. We have discussed the first break-through, when, by chance, the possibility developed for certain compounds to capture some of the sun's energy in flexible, high-energy electro-chemical bonds. The next break-through occurred, when the chance-existence of one compound led to the possibility for another substance to exist in close proximity, forming the beginning of a (bio)-chemical, or, rather, organic-chemical chain-reaction.
The amount and variety of organic compounds must have been absolutely unimaginable in those primordial, protoplasmic seas, and, we can be sure, that, only a minute fraction of the actualised organic existence possibilities survived, when the biochemical reactions became sequestered and sheltered within the boundaries of the small but self-duplicating cellular unit of organic existence.
Not all structural arrangements, such as molecular layering and proximity relationships depended on chemical interactions between compounds. The numerous evolving organic compounds had also differing physical, electro-static and solubility characteristics, and, the many aspects of structuring we still see taking place in the living protoplasm, today, are a result of a combination of chemical characteristics, (dependent upon a chain of energy transfers), as well as physical, electro-static and solubility characteristics.
Let us see what happens, when the accidental development of a certain structure leads to the possibility of self-duplication through a process of arranging other compounds, (smaller building blocks floating in the surroundings), in such a way, that, by a process of apposition to its own structure, a similar compound emerges. This process has a parallel in the inorganic growth of many crystals, which also have the ability to act as a nucleus for the apposition of further crystals; by arranging the dissolved molecules from the surrounding solution into a crystalline lattice. The process of organic self-duplication is analogous to self-duplicating crystallisation, except for the fact, that it does not require a super-dense, over-saturated environment of identical molecules, (which is necessary for inorganic crystalline growth). However, the mechanisms of organic self-duplication, or re-duplication, do require an outside source of energy.
The availability of high-energy electro-chemical bonds may become an energy-source for the work necessary to accomplish such a re-duplication without a super-dense environment. If bio-chemical energy flows through a bio-chemical chain-reaction into a region with a lower energy-potential, the resultant flow of energy can be tapped and used to build-up the energy-content of an organic compound. Here, we have another major break-through, because, suddenly, the quantity of a compound with self-duplicating properties can increase significantly, as long as suitable building blocks and a suitable source of energy remain available
The important generalisation for us to see, here, is the phenomenon of the break-through, when there is a sudden change in the ratio of the various existing substances as a result of the accidental formation of a substance that can make a copy of itself. The essence of the concept of a break-through is the sudden channeling of a flow of energy through a suitable sequence of events, because there is, suddenly, a channel into which the biochemical energy-gradient can flow. The creation, by chance, of a certain substance, able to channel this flow of energy, is quite comparable to the small gully that was found by a flow of water over the rim of the pit or crater. We know, that this flow of water continues to favour the gully as it flows over the rim of a still empty pit or crater in the inundating valley.
The event, substance or circumstance creating a break-through, provides a channel for an energy-flow, or "energy-dissipation", and, it results in a sudden shift in the balance of forces and the ratio of existing compounds. The break-through event, or substance, allows for a strong, but, often, temporary flow of energy into a previously unfilled "niche of existence possibilities", just as the empty crater was a possibility of existence to be filled, once the resistance to filling this niche had been overcome by a sufficiently high water level, as well as the creation of a gully that became a path of least resistance for a flow of energy into this newly found possibility of existence.
During the event of a biochemical break-through, building blocks, as well as suitable energy-levels, are being depleted, and the end-products build-up. This development tends to exert a force in the opposite direction, slowing-down and, eventually, halting the energy-flow. Then, a new equilibrium has been reached, just as the flow of water into the crater slows-down, as soon as the crater or pit has been filled to the brim. A new balance has been created, but the ratio between existing substances, as well as the local circumstances or conditions, may have been drastically altered.
This is the principle of the break-through, and we will come back to it, again and again, as we analyse the numerous circumstances under which these same principles seem to apply.
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Chapter 3The chemical chain-reaction.
Energy relationships and the concept of an equilibrium.
Adaptability and the requirements of internal fluidity.
The free-floating cell.
The probable origins of cellular life and the sequestration of self-duplicating fragments of the primordial protoplasm.
The need for a guided sequence of events.
The role of a template.
Free oxygen and the first pollution-crisis for life on earth.
The oxygen revolution.
Oxygen respiration.
The complementary aspects of photo-synthesis and oxygen-respiration.If the end-product of a particular biochemical reaction is, at the same time, the start of, or building block for, another one, a chain reaction develops, which depends on the proximity of the reacting substances. Because of this interdependence, the possibilities of existence are enormously increased, but, we see, that these processes are now less random and more clustered into groups of reactions, because they become mutually dependent on each other for their existence.
An equilibrium is a status of balance between opposing force-fields, and there is, usually, very little flow of energy through a particular system. The status-quo is maintained and the vector-diagram of forces that is operating on the system, remains balanced. The equilibrium of force-fields, operating on a system, can be changed, not only, by the development of a "break-through", as we have described before, but also, by a change in environmental circumstances. Changes in temperature, or, in the reactable substances that are exerting a pressure on the system, or, the invasion into the local environment of new substances exerting their own influence on the existing balance of forces, or, the development of a break-though in a nearby system; all these factors may result in a change in the balance point or equilibrium of the force-fields acting upon a system.
Everything flows, and, certainly, all the physical constants on earth, eventually, change, and result in a new equilibrium, but, changes in the balance between force-fields occur even far more rapidly and frequently as a result of changes in the relationships between the life-forms themselves.
Before we discuss the principles of the evolutionary break-through on a multi-cellular level, let us consider, for a few moments, the momentous development of the free-floating cell. These cellular capabilities were the result of a culmination of evolutionary mechanisms in biochemical relationships. Eventually, these capabilities became the cornerstone of all cellular and multi-cellular lifeforms we see in nature, today.
We have alluded to the indescribable variety of organic compounds that must have existed, at one time or another, in the primitive protoplasmic oceans, where the whole sea, or, at least, large areas of the shallow, luke-warm, early terrestial oceans, must have formed a vast, interwoven network of "primordial protoplasm", where a myriad of existence possibilities were being explored as they presented themselves under the prevailing circumstances. The evolution of various lipids, (fatty substances), in close association with peculiar, palisading types of proteins and carbo-hydrates, must have given rise to long ribbons, or globular sequestrations, that would contain a part of this primordial protoplasm in a process that was foreshadowing the later cellular enclosure of individually existing cells.
On the fringes of the protoplasmic pool, in the deeper, colder and darker areas of the seas, as well as in the shallow inter-tidal zones, there must have been areas, where the possibilities for organic existence were more restricted, because the environmental circumstances were harsher, more stringent and difficult. Probably, in these more "difficult" areas, over a long period of natural evolutionary experimentation, the existence possibilities of small blobs of sequestered protoplasm were explored, as they became sheltered by a membrane of semi-permeability. These mechanisms culminated, eventually, into the emergence of an independently metabolising and reproducing cellular entity.
Here, sheltered by a protective membrane, the break-through of cellular self-reproduction must have taken place. There, certain chemical compounds could, not only, duplicate themselves, but, a whole complex of interdependent bio-chemical machinery could reduplicate and build-up a mirror image of its entire structure, making use of organic molecules in the watery surroundings, as well as the ubiquitous presence of solar energy.
This, however, required the reproduceability of a large number of organic-chemical complexes in a controled sequence, and the chain of events, necessary to guide the formation of such a reproduction, must have been slowly formulated and coded into a special key of complex ribo-nucleic acids.
Some of the rather stable, but extremely complex nucleic acids were suitable to serve as a "template" for the production of a host of other substances, but, at the same time, when not in use as a template, such a stable molecule could be safeguarded from destructive influences, or "wear and tear", by being locked into a protective casket of similar nucleic acids. These nucleic acids would only perform their task of forming "messengers" or instructors for the metabolic machinery of the cell, whenever the casket was opened for a short period of time, usually, only at a certain place along its long, twisting helix of secure configurations.
Since the basic mechanisms of cellular metabolism are, essentially, similar throughout the realm of living existence, we assume, that, only a very small portion of the various biochemical or metabolic path-ways existing at one time or another, has survived the rigorous march of evolutionary developments.
However, the biochemical mechanisms of the early cellular life-forms must have been very different compared to our contemporary, oxygen-requiring processes of "catabolism", or, the "break-down" of organic compounds. We are fairly sure, that all the free oxygen in our atmosphere has been formed by these early life-forms, busily photo-synthesising and releasing their unwanted oxygen into the atmosphere as a waste-product. Oxygen was actually toxic for these organisms, and the first pollution crisis for life on earth occurred in that distant past, when such high levels of atmospheric oxgygen were built-up, that the pressure of this atmospheric oxygen favoured, strongly, the evolutionary development of a biochemical process capable of utilising the oxygen and releasing carbon-dioxide, complementing thereby, beautifully, the almost identical processes of photo-synthesis, or "anabolism", in reverse.
Once oxygen metabolism, catabolism, or "respiration", became possible, the interdependence with the photo-synthetic process became an integral part of almost all the cellular biochemical processes still in existence, today. Yet, there are still organisms around that never acquired the ability to handle "free oxygen", and these organisms are doomed to live, deeply hidden from the air, e.g., in the soil or in rotting wounds, where these organisms may produce lethal waste-products in the form of "toxins"; examples are the tetanus and gas-gangrene bacilli.
The development of oxygen respiration was a major break-through in the events of biochemical evolution, and, the circumstances were such, that the viability of a cellular mechanism with the capability of oxygen respiration was highly favoured over a cellular life-form that did not have such capabilities. This is another example of a break-through with a drastic change in the balance between living systems, as well as a remarkable change in the atmospheric conditions of the early earth.
Our biological, biochemical and virological studies give us, now, a remarkably coherent, but, also, complex picture of early biological developments. The details are fascinating and seem to confirm, constantly, the evolutionary concepts of the origin of life on our planet
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Chapter 4
The break-through reconsidered.
The phenomenon of symbiosis.
Symbiosis, parasitic relationships and predation; a discussion in the light of energy relationships.
The flow of least resistance.
The life-form as a "gully" for the flow of biological energy.
The obligatory aspects of internal repair; energy requirements.
Left-over energy and the concept of the "elan vital".
The dynamic balance of living organisms; with each other and their environment.
The break-through of behavioural plasticity.
The species of man and the break-through of concept formation.I will leave the details of the imagery of biological evolution to experts in this field, since the purpose, here, is to high-light only the phenomenon of the "break-through". Numerous break-throughs must have occurred in the early cellular and pre-cellular phases of biological evolution, and, we will always have to accept a somewhat vague and speculative imagery about what has transpired in that far-distant past, since almost none of these biochemical events have left any trace in our sedimentary rocks. We can only deduce from the presently still existing, and, now, often widely divergent life-forms, how they came to be; how these life-forms developed from their original, common biochemical ancestry.
Let us come back to the break-through. One of the most profoundly disturbing and enormously influential break-throughs was the development of parasitic and predatory existence. Before we discuss the predatory nature of all animal life, we should, briefly, pay attention to the phenomenon of symbiosis. In symbiosis, two separate lifeforms exist in a remarkable relationship of interdependence, mutually benefitting from such an interdependent existence; to the extent, that separate existence, often, becomes incompatible with life. If the relationship is only beneficial for one party, but indifferent, or, even, harmful to the other, we call such a relationship "parasitic". However, the parasite does not have to destroy his host in order to exist, but the actual destruction of an independently existing lifeform is necessary for the "predator", since this organism has to assimilate certain preformed organic building blocks from its prey in order to maintain its own existence.
We have seen, that the key to the formation of organic material from inorganic building blocks is the highly developed process of "photo-synthesis". This remarkable process is the cornerstone of the existence of all plant and animal life, but photo-synthesis is cumbersome and requires a large surface area, which is not compatible with the evolution of "mobility", or motility, on a large, multi-cellular scale.
On a microscopic, cellular level, we see, clearly, the common roots of plant and animal life with the existence of transitional forms that combine the features of both, but, in the realm of multi-cellular evolution, the road is mutually exclusive, and, the distinction between animal- and plant-life is sharp, except for a few curious instances of "convergence". Here, certain plants have evolved the possibility of dissolving animal life-forms, such as insects, with the help of digestive juices, and, certain animal life-forms have given-up their mobility and attached themselves permanently, e.g., to an underwater rock-formation.
The development of a life-form that was able to ingest or break-down another life-form in a "bath of digestive juices", was a momentous break-through, because it made an entirely different multi-cellular evolution possible, where the accent was placed on mobility and the ability to capture another life-form. This is the reason, why a predator could dispense with the processes of photo-synthesis all-together. The reason, why this was a gigantic break-through will become clear in the course of our discussions, since we will retrace, several times, the high-lights of this evolutionary break-through.
Evolution has now progressed to the point, where a cell can exist independently from the protoplasmic primordium, and is capable of absorbing solar energy. We will see, how the continuous expenditure of energy by the cell is necessary in order to retain the integrity of its cellular structure. Some energy-expenditure is necessary to impose the constraints of togetherness on the cellular unit, and, to fight the entropy of its often contradictory and antagonistic components. Since the cell is "fluid", mechanically as well as biochemically, with a low internal resistence to change, it is capable of adapting to changes in its environment, but, as a result of this fluidity and low resistance to change, it needs a constant level of cellular metabolic activities in order to prevent itself from becoming disorganised.
The fluidity and fragility of its biochemical machinery makes the cell vulnerable to dispersive influences, and, in order to combat this tendency to dispersion, or "entropy", the cell requires a constant expenditure of "corrective energy". The cell is a continuous recipient of energy, like a bottom-less pit, but it has to have access to a source of suitable biochemical energy in order to maintain the integrity of its structure and its existence as a life-form. The cell has to maintain the rather "soft walls of its crater", so to speak, (as we refer to the analogy about the inundating valley), and these walls have a tendency to collapse under the constant flow of water. Or, here, the protoplasm has a tendency to become disorganised as a result of the dispersive tendencies of its biochemical compounds; unless constantly re-enforced and cemented together by self-restorative processes.
A biological cellular unit is, therefore, a path of least resistance for the flow, or dissipation, of a suitable source of biochemical energy. Part of this energy is used for maintenance processes, but left-over energy is used by the cell to grow, and, eventually, multiply. After duplication, there are two cells, and the flow of energy has increased, and, it will continue to increase, until limiting factors start to develop. Factors limiting the flow of energy are, usually, the scarcity of energy or building blocks. Then, a variety of cells begin to compete for the same biochemical energy-gradient and building blocks. This lowers the pressure-gradient of the chemical energy-source. Building blocks, needed for growth and reproduction, become depleted, too. As a result, the cells require more energy to obtain their energy and assemble their building blocks, and the undesirable end-products or waste-products of the metabolic machinery are beginning to accumulate.
Quickly, a situation arises, whereby the energy-flow ceases to increase in spite of the growing number of energy-dissipating cellular units, because the pressure-differential for the energy-flow has decreased as a result of the competition for building blocks and the rising counter-pressures of waste-products.
The energy-flow becomes steady; enough to sustain a certain number of cells, but growth and multiplication are off-set by an equal number of cellular deaths. A new balance of forces has been reached, and yet, this balance of forces is continuously changing, as neither the source of energy, nor the amount of building blocks, or the level of noxious waste-products, remains the same for any length of time. There are continuously shifts taking place in the relationships of the force-fields acting upon a community of cells, as they try to sustain themselves in a certain environment.
The cells try to adjust to changes in the play of these natural force-fields by "adapatations", or, exploratory patterns of behaviour, which exploit the possibilities for changes in form and function within a certain range of genetically determined constants. These exploratory activities of change and adaptation are carried-out by the cellular units of life, in order to ease the stress or pressure of the environmental force-fields upon their ability to maintain the structure of life.
A living structure, therefore, always tries to adjust to changes in the balance of the force-fields that are acting upon or through its system. These changes are created, partially, by its own existence, its competitors and other life-forms, but, partially, these changes are independent of life's existence, such as changes in geological conditions and climatological circumstances.
A "break-through", then, shifts the balance of circumstantial or environmental forces in favour of the existing organisms, but, sooner or later, a balance occurs, once again, this time on a different plane. This point of balance is, perhaps, so different, that the whole environment has changed radically, but some form of balance always recurs. The most rapid changes in environmental conditions are brought-about by the presence or absence of the lifeforms themselves, and, therefore, the various types of equilibrium and the changes in the equilibria we can observe in nature's eco-systems, are, nearly always, brought-about by a change or variation in biological force-fields. Occasionally, we see the most dramatic effects of an ecological balance occur as a result of natural disaster, such as a volcanic eruption or a land-slide.
We will analyse, in the following pages, the various types of balance that take place between lifeforms and systems of lifeforms, living together and influencing each other. We will try to form a picture of the mechanisms of evolutionary change, as well as the occasional occurrence of a break-through, altering, significantly, the balance of forces within a particular eco-system.
One of the most dramatic evolutionary break-throughs is the emergence of the species of mankind. Man's evolutionary development has been made possible by the developments of behavioural flexibility, conceptualising and manipulating skills, the skills of cultural transmission, and the cerebral as well as external recording of behaviour patterns and belief-structures; all these events are to be analysed with the mechanism of a break-through in mind.
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Chapter 5The time-span of biochemical evolution.
A review of our concepts about evolutionary change.
The diurnal variation of sunlight and tidal currents; flood and ebb.
Energy-requiring biochemical reactions.
Analogies with "work" done by water currents.
The formation of a high-energy, chemical bond, and the possibilities for transferring this energy to other chemical reaction patterns.
The transience of the existence of a rapid or a waterfall.
Dependence on a continuous fluidity and adaptability.
Sequentially organised events.At the present time, we consider it likely, that the biochemical evolution on our earth took approximately one billion years, before the single cell, or the uni-cellular organism, was fully developed to the point we consider, now, to represent a complete, "eukaryotic" cell. However, we have good evidence to believe, that the first uni-cellular organisms to achieve an independent, reproduceable status, were much more primitive than most uni-cellular organisms in existence, today.
We can only guess, what kind of cellular organism first started to experiment with the successful symbiotic forms of mutual dependence or interdependence, which, eventually, led to the development of multi-cellular life. We can only try to reconstruct such a development from presently visible evolutionary path-ways. The relatively few metabolic path-ways in use throughout the realm of living existence, point to the likelyhood, that all cellular and multi-cellular organisms of living species' stem from a few, successful cellular systems, while there existed, probably, at some time in this evolutionary past, an incredible variety of cellular and near-cellular life-forms vying for a possibility to exist.
The gradual disappearance of the primordial protoplasmic pool posed an increasing strain on the existence possibilities of many lifeforms or near-lifeforms, because we visualise, that many of these nearly independent lifeforms would periodically re-unite, or fuse, with the primordial protoplasm in order to "rejuvenate" themselves. Eventually, these uni-cellular organisms were "on their own", and many lines of uni-cellular existence became extinct, except those, whose progeny we still are, and study.
The survival and evolution of the successful uni-cellular lifeforms into an independent form of existence, (independent from the primordial protoplasm), was a momentous break-through, just as, later, the development of symbiotic and predatory relationships between these cellular units was a milestone innovation in the exploration of existence possibilities. We will consider the essential characteristics of living matter on various occasions, but, here, I would like to concentrate on one of those remarkable features associated with the organisation of inanimate matter into a living complex.
One of the essential features of every living organism is the necessity to continuously spend some energy in order to maintain functional and structural integrity, and, to avoid the disintegration and loss of coherence, called "death". Why does an inorganic molecule of matter not disintegrate under average conditions on earth? The reason lies, in essence, in the fact, that the internal resistance of the chemical bonding within an inorganic molecule prevents such a process of disintegration, unless a far greater pressure is exerted, (in the form of thermal agitation and other forms of physical and electro-chemical pressures), than is operative under normal terrestial circumstances.
There are, indeed, numerous examples of matter molecules that will disintegrate into more stable compounds without exhibiting any of the characteristics associated with a living structure, and, the life-span of such substances is then very short, even, under normal terrestial conditions. In a relatively static situation, or "status-quo", where all such chemical events have taken place, already, unstable molecules would not exist anymore, and the status-quo would only include electro-chemical bonds that are able to resist the chemical and physical pressure-gradients of the prevailing circumstances.
We have discussed the tendency of certain substances to polymerise in the luke-warm waters of the early earth, and, we have traced the energy-input from the sun as the driving force behind biochemical reaction-patterns. We have also discussed the reversibility of many proto-biochemical reactions during the period of night-fall, and we have considered the various branching points in these proto-biochemical chain-reactions, made possible by this reversing energy-flow and its accompanying change in biochemical reaction-patterns.
We can compare the situation, quite effectively, to the periodically reversing flow of water entering a tidal basin under the influence of the force-fields of the sun and the moon. We see, not only, the reversing streams of water, either flowing into, or out of, the tidal basin, but, we see, also, that sand, clay, branches, or, even, small rocks or pebbles can be moved by the water currents that exist during the transitional periods between ebb and flood; when there is the most dramatic rate of change in the level of sea-water. If we imagine a marshy or sandy tidal inlet with meandering streams, we see, that many small rapids, waterfalls and streams exist, which are able to carry-out "work", such as move sand or pebbles, and these streams, often, change course and create new channels, depending on the patterns of erosion and the build-up of banks of sand and clay.
The biochemical pathways developing in the original "tidal basin" of the primordial protoplasm, (where energy was flowing back and forth under the diurnal variations of day and night), must have exhibited very similar patterns of behaviour. However, in stead of changing rivulets of water and the shifting of grains of sand, the pathways of energy-flow in the protoplasmic primordium would test, time and again, the possibilities of existence for a large variety of organic compounds. The ever changing chemical characteristics of the compounds that were being formed, allowed for an ever increasing complexity of pathways for the flow of energy. The chance-existence of one compound would lead to the existence of another, depending, perhaps, on the existence of a third compound, etc.
We have talked about the break-through phenomenon, the formation of chain-reactions, as well as the transfer of biochemical energy from one substance to another. We have discussed the essentially symbiotic relationships of many of the bio-chemical cycles and chains, and, we have talked about the sheltering properties of the semi-permeable cell-wall or membrane.
Just as rapids or streams need a continuous flow of water to maintain their existence as a stream or rapid, so does the cell need a continuous flow of energy to remain a conglomerate of living biochemical relationships, characterising the essence of a living, intact cell. The water-fall or rapid disappears, whenever the flow of water is cut-off. Similarly, biochemical reactions run-down to their lowest energy-level within the cell, when no more usable energy is available to them. Numerous chemical substances disappear, because they are labile and require constant replenishing. Eventually, we are left, therefore, with the non-reacting, stable compounds, after the mechanisms of decay and disintegration have done their work.
Just as the rapid or waterfall can react, quickly, to obstacles and flow around or over them, so can the cell react to chemical and physical influences, which the stable, inorganic compounds can not react to. Just as the rapid or water-fall can perform "work", turn the wheels of a mill or the turbines of a generator, so can the cell perform work, build, move, expend energy and repair itself, but, when the flow of energy stops, the fragile machinery of biochemical metabolism decays, quickly, into an irreversible state of chaos and disruption.
The key to the existence, and perpetuation, of all life-forms is the ability to reproduce itself. This involves a complex sequence of biochemical events, taking place in a suitable environment of building blocks and energy-supplies, and, in order to prevent the loss of this key of self-duplication, (which is, in essence, a model for a specific sequential organisation of biochemical events), this complex biochemical structure, made-up of large chains with many millions of spatially arranged molecules; this regulating structure, or "genetic code", will have to be duplicated, exactly, and transferred to the nucleus of the new organism.
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Chapter 6
Mechanisms of reduplication.
The phenomenon of biochemical senescence.
A renewal of the energy-flow with the processes of reduplication and rejuvenation.
The "elan vital"; its biochemical, biological, evolutionary and psychological aspects.Perhaps, the simplest way for a cell to make a copy of itself, is to duplicate its organisational "key" or genetic code. Then, each complete key moves to opposite sides of the cell. The cell will pinch itself in half, as the protoplasmic constituents become polarised around two rival centers of regulatory influences. These rival centers, then, rebuild the missing or diminished protoplasmic contents from the materials that are available in the outside world.
After it has been functioning and metabolising for a while, every cell becomes somewhat less agile in its biochemical functions. Presumably, here and there, some waste-products build-up, some essential templates are getting worn or defective, and structural proteins become less flexible, or change, slowly, into a chemically more brittle form.
However, once the division of a cell into two halves has been accomplished, a remarkable rejuvenation has taken place as well. The metabolic processes occur with a renewed vitality, and the activity of protoplasmic growth has been increased. In short, the energy-flow through the cellular system is facilitated, and, this is the basis for a renewed "elan vital", or vital energy, which is such an outstanding characteristic of the young, newly formed organism.
Exactly, why the production of a new genetic key, (this exact copy of the parental genetic code with the subsequent initiation of biochemical sequences that form a new organism), leads to an increased vigour, elasticity and metabolic activity, or energy-flow, is difficult to say. It seems reasonable to postulate, that, in the older organism, the cohesive structure of the living organisation is slowly being worn-down by an accumulation of waste-products and failures of certain bio-chemical reactions, or, perhaps, the metabolic slow-down occurs as a result of a deterioriation of the interlocking structures for the spatial organisation of the protoplasmic constituents. In short, every living organism suffers from the cumulative effects of one form of stress or another.
There is, however, a fundamental observation in biological energy relationships; nl., the formation of a new cellular unit, (and, certainly, the initiation of the development of a new multi-cellular organism), causes a dramatically increased and sustained energy-flow through the system. Looking at the mammalian species`, we see, that this energy-flow is, initially, channeled, almost exclusively, into growth and differentiation during the sheltered and optimal environmental conditions of intra-uterine existence and immediate post-natal growth, but, this energy-flow is channeled, later, into the acquisition of skills necessary to handle a large variety of environmental contacts.
Eventually, the organism matures, and, during this stage, a constant energy-flow is used to maintain the structural organisation of the organism, and carry-out the complex tasks every adult lifeform has to perform in order to maintain its position in the ecological niche. This is a period of "consolidation", where the organism settles into a routine behaviour, but, eventually, a slow decline begins to take place, first of physical capabilities, and later, of mental abilities as well, until, finally, the body is unable to maintain its physical integrity, for one reason or another, and dies.
The elan vital we have mentioned, so often, is reflected in the ease with which energy flows through an organism, and, it is expressed, primarily, in physical growth and maturation. However, this flow of energy also manifests itself in the psychological sphere of seeking recognition, exerting dominance and aggressiveness, as well as exhibiting exploratory attitudes and adventurist activities. The elan vital of the human organism is translated, after an initial emphasis on physical growth, into a very prolonged period of learning, whereby the many years needed to acquire the skills to find one's niche in society, also allow for a long period of behavioural flexibility and mental agility, even, after the period of physical decline has already set-in.
Eventually, however, the energy and flexibility, necessary to absorb new concepts and ideas, decline too, and one's attitudes become less flexible and more stereotyped. New ideas are increasingly mistrusted. An ever accumulating body of experiences, as well as an ever longer period of learning, tend to make the acceptance of a new idea more difficult, since every new concept or tid-bit of information is compared to an ever larger body of well-accepted, well-trusted and well-integrated beliefs and experiences.
It may well be, that the psychological ageing processes, (which are more easily observed), can show us, by analogy, some of the physical processes of senescence that are taking place in the cells of our multi-cellular body. It may well be, that the young, newly formed, metabolising machinery of the cell has a certain flexibility to organise its activities in accordance with the most favourable adaptation under the prevailing circumstances. However, later, this adaptative process is increasingly stifled in a set, biochemical routine, with an increasing rigidity of stereotyped reaction-patterns, making the processes of environmental adaptation more difficult and more stressful as the organism gets older.
The renewal of the biochemical and organisational machinery of the cell during reproduction, re-introduces the possibility of flexible and adaptable behaviour. The elan vital, then, is represented by this youthful, facile flow of energy through the adaptable, exploring life-form, eager to learn and play an active part in its environment, but lacking, still, many protective and contemplative behaviour patterns, in particular, when these behaviour patterns depend on taught, culturally transmitted knowledge and insight.
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Chapter 7
Population growth and the limitations of food- and energy-supplies.
A review of the symbiotic and predatory relationships between living organisms.
The compression of lifeforms into densely populated centers.
Energy considerations of the predatory solution to the competitive stalemate.
Competitive pressures and available energy-supplies.
The organisational key of the genetic code.
Internal symbiotic relationships of the multi-cellular organism.
Symbiosis and task differentiation.We have alluded to the status-quo of a maximally sustainable population of similar, competing life-forms in a particular location, and, we have seen, that an equilibrium exists between the population density and the available food- or energy-supply. We have also touched on the two basic mechanisms playing a role in establishing an increased energy-flow through a population of lifeforms. There is, on the one hand, the symbiotic form of co-existence, (with an increased population density made possible by mutually beneficial exchanges of products), and, on the other hand, there is a predatory form of co-existence, where competition for the available food- or energy-supplies becomes so fierce, that some of the members of a population of living organisms begin to serve as a source of food for others. This reduces the number of competing life-forms, while the energy-flow through the successful, surviving organisms is increased. At the same time, the development of specific survival characteristics is sharpened or facilitated by the short-cut of predatory behaviour.
We know, now, how successful the predatory mode of existence has become, and, we have acknowledged the fact, that, we, human beings, are a prime example of the success of the predatory way of life. We are "obligate-predatory", meaning, that we have biologically no choice, but to ingest pre-fabricated building blocks that have to be obtained by killing other life-forms, be it animal- or plant-life.
The symbiotic organisation of biochemical sequences in the protoplasm ensures the energy-flow through the cellular system, and, this type of symbiotic organisation has become the key to all multi-cellular developments as well. Just as the cell is a symbiotic system of biochemical reaction-patterns, so is the multi-cellular organism a symbiosis of individually existing cells. The remarkably stringent controls, necessary to maintain the organisation of a multi-cellular individual, will be dicussed, later, and we will see, how this organic-physical development of symbiotic relationships is the real main-stream of evolutionary progress on which most of our concepts have been based. These mechanisms are even more important than the more obvious and better known mechanisms of competitive strife with its usual emphasis on the principle of "survival of the fittest".
The organisational key of mutual cellular interdependence has been slowly and carefully developed during the succession of countless generations of multi-cellular organisms, and, this organisational key has been securely locked into the biochemical structure of the genes. Interestingly, multi-cellular animals are symbiotic in their internal organisation, while they are, primarily, predatory in their interactions with other lifeforms, especially, with those lifeforms that serve as a source of sustenance.
Seen from a cellular level, the symbiotic, multi-cellular form of life, with its numerous specialised functions and structural differentiations, is, by far, the most highly developed form of living existence, but, seen from the level of the multi-cellular organisation, it is the freely moving, highly adaptable, predatory animal, which has developed the road to individualised behaviour patterns and intelligent social interactions.
From a human point of view, it is logical, that we emphasise the importance of the animal characteristics of viable existence. At the present stage of evolutionary development, the faculties of intelligence and behavioural flexibility of the large and complex multi-cellular animal organisms seem to represent a successful evolutionary pathway; whether or not this holds true for the final outcome of the evolution of the living organisation, remains to be seen.
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Chapter 8
The human individual and his social surroundings.
Applying energy considerations to motivations and instinctive drives.
The elan vital; goal-patterns, and the frustration of drives.
Energy-flow through a psychological system.
A focus for the elan vital.
Predatory aspects and neurotic suppressions.
The psychological break-through.Let us look, for a moment, at the human individual and his social organisations, and, let us see, whether or not we can aply the principles of an increased flow of energy through the living organisation as an explanation for the manifestations of physical as well as psychological energy-expenditures. Our human trends and tendencies, goals and objectives, as well as the physiological drives and biologically determined instinctive behaviour patterns, are an interesting field of study and consideration, which we will touch upon only briefly, here.
As a parallel to the concepts that let us visualise an ecological balance of forces between the competing members of a population of living organisms, we can also refer to a multitude of divergent, conflicting trends and tendencies, conflicting stimuli, impulses and judgements, contrasting mood-swings and goal-patterns. Many of these force-fields manifest themselves as a conscious awareness or psychological drive in the individual human being. Perhaps, it is useful to see these psychological drives and conscious awarenesses also as a multi-channel system through which the energy-flow of an individual can take place.
If behaviour patterns remain confused or contradictory, the flow of energy is impeded, resulting in ineffective behavioural choices, as well as the experience of frustrating or unsatisfactory results. However, if a successful and convincing goal-pattern has been established, and is well-integrated and accepted by the individual and his social surroundings, the synchronisation of the energy-flow through the multiple psychological channels of an individual can reach enormous proportions. There are astounding examples of achievement, where people have been able to channel their energies effectively in order to exercise power, or, to accomplish various scientific and technological objectives, as well as important artistic achievements.
The harmonious flow of a person's energy into a worthwhile, believed-in objective, is a valuable and happiness-producing experience for the individual, even, if the benefits for society may be questionable, at times, and, occasionally, disastrous.
However, most of us will never reach anywhere near such a totally harmonious outpouring of a torrential energy-flow, and, we have to learn to live with the status-quo of frustrating tensions, misunderstood drives, poorly realised goals, and socially constrained behaviour patterns. Yet, the learning associated with the experience of frustrations and limitations, the wisdom necessary to accept the inevitable and integrate the possible, the maturity resulting from insight and understanding; all these factors make the status-quo tolerable, or, even, a source of contentment and inspiration.
If we consider the neuronal population of our brain-cells as a society of nerve-cells trying to coordinate the many, conflicting demands made upon the organism as a whole, (organising the adaptative response of the organism in relation to its evironment), we see, that a symbiotic, integrated and well-coordinated behaviour of brain-cells will increase the psychological energy-flow into a decisive, clear-cut pattern of behavioural choices, even, if this behaviour may sometimes be judged as obstructive or destructive, when seen from the view-point of the social environment.
Yet, predatory aspects play a role, even here, in the realm of the organisation of our individual behaviour patterns. At least, we could interpret the forceful, neurotic suppression of a non-integrated, non-understood, or non-accepted behavioural drive, as a form of "behavioural predation", designed to remove the puzzling, dispersive influence of an unacceptable drive by a forceful, over-powering mechanism; even, if the act of total destruction remains impossible in the psychological management of existential drives.The symbiotic flowering of a successful psychological integration of the personality structure, leads, therefore, to a marked increase in the biological energy-flow. It leads to a remarkable increase in productivity and expressive powers, and the individual becomes a more viable organism, capable of dealing with environmental pressures and social tensions.
If this flowering is extra-ordinarily successful, we may speak of a "behavioural break-through", or, rather, an adaptative break-through in the structuring of a contemporary behavioural response, or, perhaps, even, of the personality as a whole; whenever we are visualising an opportunity to alter the basic response-patterns of an individual during the formative years.
A successful structuring of the personality may have a strongly persuasive and synchronising effect on the social surroundings, and, it may lead to the "cultural flowering" of a group of individuals, who are forming, then, a viable nucleus for successful activities that are taking place within a larger social framework.
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Chapter 9
Harmony and energy-flow at the level of social integration.
The rise of social nuclei.
The bundling and synchronisation of the elan vital.
Homeostasis, and the shifting levels of a dynamic balance.
Factors in the development of social cohesion; power and domination.
A sweeping summary of man, elan vital, evolution, and the development of behavioural and moral choices.
The on-going search for a dynamic balance between man and his environment.We can, sometimes, identify the synchronising and harmonising influences that are playing a role during the rise of a nucleus of social vigour and activity, and, we are, sometimes, able to trace these mechanisms to the use of superior tools or weapons, superior mechanisms for social organisation, (such as laws, moral guidelines or effective mechanisms for settling disputes), but, often, it remains difficult to pin-point, exactly, the reasons for the spectacular rise of a social nucleus. This nucleus is able, at times, to become a society the size of an empire. However, it is more common to see the rise of a much smaller social grouping, such as a family, or, even, a single individual, or, we may see the rise of a movement in art, science or politics.
We can only say, that a certain factor, (or a multitude of factors), may be playing a role in transforming, rather suddenly, a fragment of society into a more powerful, more productive and more persuasive state of activity, and, the biological energy-flow, or elan vital, is then flowing with an increased vigour through an individual or small social grouping, increasing its productivity and creativity.
The development of a nucleus of beneficial symbiotic relationships with the functional integration of attitudes and activities, the increased energy-flow of the elan vital, together with enriched possibilities of expression, may assume proportions of a real break-through, thoroughly altering the balance of power and siphoning-off energy from neighbouring social environments. Then, the sphere of influence becomes ever larger. The social interactions taking place in such a sphere of influence may be well-integrated or symbiotically organised, but, often, these relationships have a tendency to become somewhat parasitic or predatory in nature, as they are based, increasingly, on the power to dominate and intimidate.
While diminishing the prominence and existence possibilities for surrounding communities and other social entities, this increased energy-flow becomes, nevertheless, an active platform for adatative changes. As we have discussed before, the young individual, or, the newly formed single cell, show, together with their increased elan vital, also, an increased adaptability, and, they will seek-out, confidently, various existence possibilities, while taking stress in stride and fluidly adapting and molding themselves into the successful lifeforms they are on their way to become.
A new homeostasis or equilibrium will inevitably be reached, where the lifeform, be it an individual or a socially integrated entity, enters a period of stabilisation and maturation, leading, eventually, to rigidity and a lack of adaptability. Occasionally, a society may become rejuvenated by some sort of radical change, or, it may be assimilated into a new order of organisation. Then, it may contribute some aspects of knowledge, technical expertise or cultural features to the new social entity, but these contributions are likely to lose their origin and identity in the process of amalgamation.
The rejuvenated elan vital is to be seen, then, as a surge of energy flowing through the gates of a break-through, rather than as a continuous, smoothly and evenly flowing stream of evolutionary events with gradual transformations. Indeed, the mechanisms of evolutionary change take place, often, in a stepwise manner, greatly accelerated through the openings created by a break-through. At other times, in other areas of the realm of life, the pace of evolutionary change is very slow, almost imperceptible, as there appears to exist a static balance between well-established ecological conditions.
Man represents a break-through in intelligent behaviour, but, he is not the sole possessor of the faculty of individualised behavioural adaptation through learning. Man is the first significant break-through in nature's experiment with a cultural, rather than a genetic transmission of detailed behaviour patterns. Yet, potentially frightening and disastrous possibilities have been opened-up for the species of mankind as a result of this break-through.
Eventually, we may be able to see human history and the incessant succession of wars, rising and falling civilisations, societies, groups and individuals, conflicts and examples of cooperation, as a series of cultural break-throughs; where, slowly, the composite appearance of the living generations was developed, tested, tried, and, often, discarded in a seemingly confusing series of disastrous events and unfortunate experiences.
We may, eventually, see common denominators arise from all these break-throughs; such as, e.g., the domestication of animals, the use of fire, or, the break-through represented by a consciously verbalised behavioural code. Then, we are dealing with the common denominator of commonly accepted notions or explicitly formulated laws. There are, also, major conceptual break-throughs in the form of religious and ideological belief structures, summarised, for example, in a concept of monotheism and the relevance of suffering and salvation.
There is the break-through of communicable knowledge and well-defined structures of belief; the break-through of observation, classification and categorisation in cause and effect relationships, but also, the break-through of compassion, mutual identification and tolerance. All-together, the scene of human existence reveals a bewildering variety and diversity of surges of the elan vital, reflecting the biological pressures of the successful human being, who is finding, filling, and, perhaps, even, destroying his ecological niche, because the species of mankind is, in essence, still unbalanced by the forces of nature; in spite of the retarding influence of inter-human strife and the limitations of the earth's resources and eco-systems.
The major, continuing break-through of intelligent behaviour by the species of mankind is still far from having found its natural, ecological point of balance, because we see a most confusing variety of conflicting developments and events.
Let us try to analyse life's events with the cohesive idea of a channeled energy-flow, ultimately provided and powered by the light of the sun, creating multiple levels of existence-possibilities in a hierarchy of predatory dominance and symbiotic task-specialisations. The events and manifestations of human existence have become inextricably linked with the complex behaviour patterns of a flexible, adaptable, consciously choosing intelligence, summarised in the concept of a "free will".
Confusing, perhaps, but not hopelessly so; contradictory, but not insurmountable; fascinating, maybe indefinitely. From saintly goodness, (a state of existence that is in itself contradictory in nature), to an alienating brutality that is easier to understand; both extremes of human nature are embraced in the range of our existence possibilities, as well as the dictates of our evolutionary heritage.
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Chapter 10
The homeostasis or "optimum equilibrium" of the single organism.
The need for challenge and the path to decay.
Goal patterns, and the discrepancy between the actual and the desired status.
The fine line between challenge and discomfort.
Displacement forces.
Various forms of stress.
The sense of gratitude and the mechanisms of happiness.
Beneficial and harmful levels of stress.
Social decay.
The accentuation needed for a convincing artistic portrayal.
The role of personal safety and its blunting effect on the ability to sympathise.There is a remarkable phenomenon called "homeostasis", where the existence of a prolonged "optimum equilibrium" of all the forces acting upon a living organism, (including the human being), becomes the basic goal and source of contentment for such an organism, while, at the same time, the condition of homeostasis may mark a beginning towards decline, weakness and destruction.
Time and again, we see, that a living organism or organisation needs to be challenged, at least, to some extent. A living organism needs to experience a certain tension between the desired point of optimum equilibrium and its actual status. This constant tension between goal and status-quo becomes a major "behavioural organiser", absorbing the flow of vital energies and giving the organism a chance to channel its activities into a productive, coherent objective.
The discrepancy between the desired state and the existing state is felt, on the one hand, as an imperfection, but, seen on a large scale, the existence of this tension, as well as the subjective feeling of imperfection, seems to represent a more viable state than the point of optimum equilibrium we all strife towards.
We have learned to see any displacement away from this desired "optimum equilibrium" as a challenge to the living organism, but, if this challenge or force-field, displacing the organism away from its homeostatic point of equilibrium, becomes too strong, the resulting tension is interpreted as "uncomfortable", and slides into varying degrees of mental and physical suffering; especially, when the forces reach life-threatening proportions. Curiously, then, there is an ill-defined line between challenge and discomfort; between a beneficial, hardening and revitalising displacement force, and a force that is harmful and dangerous.
The presence of a displacement force results in a variety of important physical and mental behaviour patterns. The physical mechanisms of stress-adaptation are now fairly well known, but it is important to realise, that mental and physical stress-mechanisms are closely related. Psychological stress may have a profound effect upon the physical structure and activities of the body, while the reverse is true as well. Even a minor physical stress has a profound influence upon our behaviour patterns and mental mechanisms. The initial result of a minor physical stress is the adoption of a more emotional or physiological response, and, consequently, there is a reduced influence of our finely discriminatory, emotionally neutral, evaluative functions.
It is, actually, not all that useful to separate mental and physical stress, and let us, therefore, look at the totality of the stress caused by the displacement forces at work in an individual. The influence exerted by a stressful situation on our acquired or deliberately chosen objectives is quite remarkable. We have alluded to the absorption of the elan vital in the mildly challenging forms of stress, which are, often, deliberately sought-after in the form of sports and adventures. In the slightly more severe, more sustained, somewhat uncomfortable and involuntary stress-patterns, our organism has a remarkable capacity to adjust its objectives in the light of an existing level of stress. Our goal-patterns become, then, more oriented towards the primary existential requirements of survival, and the beneficial effect of such a re-orientation is seen, when the stress eases off. There is, then, a heightened awareness of the basic joys and pleasures of being alive; of being able to exist in a reasonable state of health, and, to be free from hunger and pain.
This sense of perspective, as well as the feeling of gratitude when the stressful situation has eased-off, or passed-by, are due to the fact, that the goals have been re-adjusted and are now in a state of close harmony with the actual state of existence. It is the co-incidence of a desired and an actual status of existence, which is the underlying mechanisms for the emotion of happiness, contentment, gratitude, and, even, the experience of a sensation of beauty.
The real benefit for the individual of a transient experience of stress, is, therefore, the re-adjustment, even, if only temporary, of the psychological goal-patterns, allowing for a much larger content of feelings of well-being and happiness. Such a large content of feelings of well-being and happiness would have been impossible without the stress-induced re-adjustment of these goal-patterns. The benefits for the individual, or, a social grouping, (if the social grouping has experienced similar stress-induced adjustments on a collective basis), are truly gigantic, and, as long as the goal-patterns remain reasonably basic, allowing gratitude and happiness to exert their collective influence, the rejuvenated vitality, productivity and harmony of such an individual or socially integrated grouping, is remarkable, indeed.
The boundary between beneficial and harmful stress is vague and difficult to delineate. Certainly, a significant part of mankind is exposed to conditions that are harmful and unjust, for individuals as well as entire communities. In sub-human conditions, mental and physical developments are stunted and permanently impaired, and, the level of human existence is essentially intolerable.
On the other hand, the comfortable and lax societies of affluence, where a large part of the people enjoy a status of near optimal existence, and, where boredom is caused by a poorly directed elan vital, these societies often seek artificial means for creating stresses and tensions, as we see in the emphasis on essentially trivial problems and pre-occupations.
A somewhat juvenile obsession with sports and adventure are some of the more positive mechanisms for creating an artificial level of stress or challenge, but, the pre-occupation with sensual pleasures is more harmful because of its egocentric emphasis and orientation. Such an orientation is, however, highly profitable for the commercially inclined entrepreneur, and a large percentage of people in the affluent societies are stimulated and manipulated by the activities of commercial interests.
The absence of significant existential stress, means, that any identification with a stressful or emotional situation is seen against the intuitive knowledge and experience of "personal safety". Therefore, the images and stress-situations that are presented artistically, have to be enlarged to almost caricature proportions, before the inertia of emotional involvement can be overcome, and, before the mechanisms of identification with the events and personalities presented in a work of art, can become possible from a position of essential safety. This is the reason, why a theatrical presentation of a real-life situation is always exaggerated. The "larger-than-life" dramatic tensions in the presentation of a stress-situation, or, the deliberate exaggeration of a comical situation, are necessary to arouse a response of recognition from a somewhat dull and sluggish audience.
When the growing individual, protected and sheltered from really significant stressful situations, tries to form his mental objectives from the unreal world of the television picture-tube, we see remarkable distortions in outlook and objectives, as well as a marked obtuseness in identification with real-life suffering and contacts with other people. This is fully understandable, and, to some extent, it represents an unavoidable development within a complacent, affluent society. It is, not only, the grossly exaggerated presentations on the picture-tube which accentuate the emotional inertia, but, it is, as much, a result of the bland and existentially soft life of the large majority within an affluent society. Together with the effects of confused parental attitudes, these mechanisms are contributing to an overall impression of defective psychological functioning.
Yet, even, in the flabby individuals of a soft society, we see the development of various emotionally stressful situations. The absence of life-threatening or real-life stress factors leads to patterns of concern and objectives, which could be classified, when seen from a different point of view, as centered around trivia.
Such is the organisation of the human mind, that it has to have goal-patterns. This means, that, in the absence of existentially important needs, artificial and irrelevant goal-patterns will be coming to the fore. These objectives will be taken dead-seriously, and are, often, a source of, apparently, significant stress.
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Chapter 11Artificial and trivial goal-patterns as an indicator of impending social decay.
Possibilities for social rejuvenation.
Stress adaptations.
Courage and bravery.
The communal facilitation or suppression of various emotional experiences.
Stress adaptation in the religious attitude; a cause of "internal stress".
The side-effects of exaggerated religious endurance and fanaticism.
Neurotic tendencies.We have concluded, in the previous chapter, that the pursuit of a set of artificial or existentially insignificant goal-patterns is the beginning of a process of decay and decadence, since the essential attitude of being grateful for the existence of a favourable homeostasis and the presence of well-being, is being obscured by wasteful and irrelevant activities. Yet, we may also argue, that this phenomenon is, at the same time, a safeguard to continuing fluidity in the ecological balance between living organisms. It is a safeguard against the formation of a stable, immutable status-quo of a living power-structure, allowing, thereby, changes and adaptations to take place for the struggling lifeforms that are seeking to unfold their potentials. These mechanisms also apply to human beings and their social organisations. However, this safeguard of fluidity and adaptability is obtained at the cost of an inherent tendency towards death, decay and decadence.
Evolutionary significant stress situations, (certainly, when they act over a prolonged period of time throughout a social conglomerate), have a tendency to re-orient the goal-patterns of a somewhat lax society. This re-orientation may lead to a rejuvenation of the elan vital and an increased resilience of the social conglomerate, but, it may also lead to a polarisation of opinions and attitudes, as well as the fragmentation of society into warring factions.
The acceptance of a certain degree of stress as beneficial, rather than harmful, is a powerful psychological adaptation, because a measure of stress is converted into an opportunity for unfolding the capability to resist stress and turn it into a potential benefit. By incorporating the ability to endure stress as a desirable objective, the individual, or the community as a whole, enlarges the range of resistance capabilities quite remarkably. The acceptance of a measure of manageable stress, and, the incorporation of stress-endurance as a highly desirable communal goal-pattern, are common mechanisms of human stress-adaptation, even, if the manifestations of these mechanisms are varied, indeed.
Bravery, courage, fortitude; all these words, and many others, indicate an acceptance of the need to cope with stress, and, many cultures, at one time or another, employ this intuitive technique of stress-adaptation. The adaptation takes place in essentially two different ways, both acting in the same direction, but the two mechanisms are significantly different. On the one hand, we see an accentuation of the positive aspects, with an emphasis on a flamboyant, daring behaviour that is stimulated and encouraged by popular acclaim. On the other hand, we see a powerful inhibition of anxious behaviour patterns, by discouraging and suppressing the expression of negative, anxiety-producing emotions, together with the suppression of sense impressions that give rise to these anxieties and defensive attitudes.
A marked public disapproval of the expression of fear creates in the individual who succumbs to such sensations or expressions of anxiety, a sense of shame, guilt, humiliation and a feeling of cowardice, which results in a forceful inhibition of the development of cautious, self-preserving behaviour patterns. If the accent is on the inhibition of negative, self-preserving behavioural instincts, rather than the encouragement of positive, confident behaviour patterns, the culture is far less flexible, and much more terrifying, compared to a culture that emphasises approval and support for the positive aspects of fortitude and leadership, or, even, daring bravery and recklessness. In the word "recklessness", however, we imply, already, a judgement of disapproval, since the excess inhibition of self-preserving instincts is considered to be self-defeating.
Another, psychologically clever way to adapt to stress is the religious attitude of accepting suffering for the sake of Christ. In essence, we see in the modern and sophisticated religious attitude of the Christian Ideal a conversion of the experience of suffering and injustice into an attitude of hopeful expectation; the expectation of a reward, or, a sense of restored justice in an eternal after-life. However, associated with these behavioural "conversions", we see, also, the down-to-earth realisation, (at least, in many religious guidelines), that a marked reduction in stress can be accomplished by curbing egocentric desires and socially harmful goal-patterns.
The Christian elevation of suffering to a highly beneficial and "spiritual" experience, together with an emphasis on the goal of eternal bliss and happiness through a deliberate acceptance, and, even, sought-after suffering during life on earth, leads to some remarkable changes in psycho-dynamics. While it can certainly be a powerful stress-adaptation to see suffering on earth as an investment in a state of eternal happiness in the future, the long-term consequences of such an attitude are episodes of very marked internal or psychological stress, where the difficult commandments of the religious Faith become, often, a subject of severe doubts, as well as feelings of guilt and failure.
The feelings of ambiguity and guilt, as well as the subsequent search for mental or physical punishment in order to atone for these feelings of doubt, lead to strange, powerful and logical, but, nevertheless neurotic personality traits. The glorification of mental and physical stress, (which induces, often, a state of "trance" and a diminished capability for finely discriminatory observations), leads to an increased susceptibility to powerful emotional surges. These emotional surges form the basis for mystical experiences and ascetic practices, as well as a deliberate search for a status of martyrdom. The resulting tenacity and endurance is enormous and frequently impresses the enemies of such fanatically dedicated people; in particular, since these attitudes of courage and fortitude co-incide, at least, to some extent, with the behaviour patterns of courage and fortitude that are acknowledged and admired by the opposing party.
However, inner tensions, caused by the demanding and psychologically difficult commandments of the Christian belief structures, remain high, and, they are, essentially, relentless. With so many of the basic drives of man condemned as "evil", (such as sexual desires, feelings of aggression and vengeance, or, the inclination to relax and enjoy oneself), the load of guilt and failure is enormous, requiring a strenuous emotional commitment in order to solve or suppress these tensions.
In addition, there may be a subtle jealousy caused by the subconscious desire to emulate the behaviour of people who are outside the laws of the Church, because they are able to enjoy a far more natural way of life. All these strange feelings and contradictory tendencies are interpreted as temptations from the Devil, leading, quite logically, to fanatic attitudes. The total commitment to the absolute righteousness and truth of the imagery of the religious teachings, can only be supported by an attitude of fanatic dedication, even, if such fanaticism may be concealed for the purpose of social acceptability or political expediency.
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Chapter 12
The exhaustive effects of chronic stress.
The role of combat; a natural but primitive solution to dissipate tensions.
Defeat, humiliation and suffering.
Communal mechanisms in stress adaptations.
Energy considerations in the mechanisms of social cohesion and decay.Severe tensions are difficult to bear and lead to exhaustion. A way has to be found to channel these tensions into a form of action to relieve them. It is, therefore, inaccurate to see a state of confrontation, or, even, violent combat, as a a state of "high stress". On the contrary, combat is the most natural, and, perhaps, the most effective way to relieve and reduce stress by galvanising the individual, or an entire community, into a euphoria of decisive activities and the suppression of fears and doubts. This elevates the mood into a state of excitement and undifferentiated elation. Only, when defeat, near death through severe wounding, expulsion or humiliation, drive home the fact that the battle has been lost, only then, stress and suffering come to the fore.
There are many severe tensions and pressures that drive an individual or society away from the point of physical and psychological homeostasis. Society, (seen, here, as a living organism), requires a reasonable fulfillment of its basic drives, just like an individual, but, it is interesting to note, that, in the early stages of captivity or slavery, a sense of gratitude exists within a defeated community; grateful, that life has been spared. This feeling of gratitude diminishes, or, even, abolishes the mechanisms of suffering, be it temporarily.
Polarisation of opinion within a society, or, the fragmentation of a stressed society into warring factions, creates, also, an exit for pent-up tensions, and, this fits-in well with the previously mentioned concept, that the energy-state of a large, organic compound, bonded together, is higher than the sum-total of energy-states of the isolated, contradictory fragments of such an organic compound, regardless, whether we are referring, here, to a complex protoplasmic compound or a conglomerate of socially integrated human beings.
A revolutionary change, a coup d'etat, a military take-over, any polarisation, therefore, is associated with a certain release of tensions. Unresolved conflicts, divisive attitudes and frustrated forces have, thereby, found an outlet, in one way or another, and, some of the dissenting forces are assimilated into a new social order, while others are actively persecuted and destroyed, so that they can not exert, anymore, a significant dissenting or disconcerting influence.
Conflict, combat and struggle are, therefore, not synonymous with, not even indicative of, suffering, misery or stress. Defeat, captivity, humiliation and slavery, eventually, lead to misery and a feeling of suffering. However, the well-fed, homeostatic, existentially stress-less society will, inevitably, create a set of irrelevant and arbitrary goal-patterns, based upon individual conflicts of interest, intrigue and jealousy. These will cause a measure of internal stress, resulting in misery and suffering, and, eventually, in decadence, decay and death, without evoking much sympathy from a neighbouring, dominating, and, perhaps, conquering society.
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Chapter 13
Another look at the mechanisms of symbiosis.
A review of symbiotic relationships.
Parasitic and predatory forms of existence.
Biochemical, cellular and multi-cellular symbiosis and phagocytosis.
The evolution of existence possibilities.Let us look, for a moment, at the concepts of symbiosis and predation in more detail, since we have mentioned these ideas several times in our discussions. Symbiosis is a "living together" of two or more individually existing entities, (such as individual cells or larger, multi-cellular organisms), in a relationship of interdependence and mutual advantage.
We have discussed the break-through that occurred, when the first, metabolising and reproducing cells were able to channel a flow of biological energy through their systems, growing and multiplying, until no further growth was possible. We saw, also, how a community of similar, competing lifeforms utilised the available building blocks and biochemical energy, until a new balance was reached between cellular duplication and cellular deaths.
The individual cells, identical in their needs and waste-products, react purely as competitors to each other and they exhibit, therefore, "dispersive qualities", like a cloud of negatively charged electrons that repell each other and disperse themselves equi-distant from each other.
The development of a reciprocal dependency of two or more organisms upon each other, was a major break-through, but, in essence, the principle of symbiosis had already been developed, a long time before, when one biochemical reaction started to depend on the products of another. The internal biochemistry of the protoplasm within the cell is, in essence, a near-independent and self-perpetuating system of symbiotic biochemical relationships. We have discussed the reasons, why this symbiotic biochemical machinery of the living protoplasm requires a constant energy-flow in order to maintain its adaptable, metabolising cohesion, and, it should not appear strange, that such a successful relationship is duplicated in the symbiosis of entire cellular units.
Cells with slighly different metabolic pathways were able to find an existence possibility in the abundance of waste- or end-products of other cells, if they could use some of these products as a source of building materials or energy, and, especially, if their waste- or end- products would, in turn, be useful to the other members of the cellular community. Under these conditions, a biochemical interdependence or symbiosis would naturally establish itself.
In terms of energy relationships, we can easily visualise a remarkable increase in energy-flow resulting from such a symbiotic system, since the inhibitory effects of the accumulation of waste-products and the energy-losses resulting from competitive efforts to obtain the same substances, (an inevitability, whenever cells live competitively), are minimised, and, at the same time, the quantity of building blocks is increased for interdependent cell-populations. Such a symbiotic system of interdependent cells would allow, therefore, a much denser population compared to the population density without symbiotic interdependence, because, separately, the cells would, inevitably, exhibit the phenomenon of "competitive dispersion". The total biochemical energy-flow through such a conglomerate existence would certainly have to increase, but, since the energy-gradient is, in essence, a function of the availability of sun-light, limitations would not easily occur. A symbiotic relationship, then, allows for complementary functions to develop between cells, just as the complementary functions of many biochemical chain-reactions within the cell made life possible in the first place.
The parasitic form of existence is similar to symbiosis, except for the fact, that the benefits are heavily weighted in favour of one of the parties involved. Predation leads, also, to a dependency, and, the behaviour patterns of symbiosis, parasitism and predation represent, each in their own manner, a solution to severe competitive pressures for building blocks or energy-supplies. We have seen, that close proximity of many competitors for the various sources of energy and building blocks, may lead to a siphoning of materials and energy from one cell to another during the development of a parasitic state of dependence. This leads, eventually, to the development of destructive techniques and behaviour patterns, such as the use of digestive juices or "lytic vacuoles", or, the encircling, amoeboid movements of the protoplasm and the eventual absorption of a lifeform into the protoplasm of a predatory cell. This means, the destruction and death of a cell that has lost-out in the competitive struggle for existence to another, slightly more capable cell.
The development of the capability to ingest another cell, (a process called "phagocytosis"), is immediately effective in restoring a flow of energy through the victorious cell. A cell population that exists in a state of competitive strife and is relatively static in the number of cells the environment can support, becomes now a "battle-field", where the losers become "food for the the winners". The supply of building blocks is increased, the number of competing cells declines, and a new phase of growth, development and reproduction occurs; but now, growth takes place from a lineage, or cellular parentage, that is slightly more capable in obtaining building blocks, (wherever they may come from), compared to the cells in an adjacent cellular community that has not gone through the experience and selection of predatory possibilities of existence.
Let us look, now, at these mechanisms in terms of generalised possibilities for an energy-flow. We should be able to formulate these principles of operation as a conclusion from observations on the mechanisms of symbiosis, parasitism and predation, as outlined above. In symbiosis, we see a tendency for complementary systems to gravitate together in clusters of mutually advantageous relationships, leading to processes of task-division and specialisation in function; increasing, thereby, the density of a population of living entities, and, increasing, also, the flow of energy through the symbiotic system as a whole. An increase in the flow of energy, means, in the analogy we have used before, a deeper gully of water flowing over the rim into the crater, and, any increase in energy-flow through a living system leads to the likelyhood of a more complex, more highly developed entity, with increased possibilities for existence and adaptation.
We can visualise, now, vaguely, the emergence of a multi-cellular unit. This evolutionary change took place, slowly, from symbiotically living colonies of cells. The gradual increase in structural organisation and coherence of such colonies led, eventually, to the spectacular development of large-scale, multi-cellular examples of animal and plant life. The constant pressures of the biochemical energy-gradient, (fueled in various ways by the capture of sun-light and the constant preferential channeling of the energy-flow through the more complex and densely populated cellular structures), are the force-fields that make the evolution of more complex life-forms, with higher energy-levels, possible.
The continuous gain in energy-levels and adaptative potentials leads to an ever increasing and widening variety of ecological niches, and we see, clearly, the analogy with the valley that is being inundated by a slowly rising water-level. More and more areas of land are being covered, until, eventually, even the highest plateaux are covered by water. Even the most inhospitable areas of the earth are, eventually, invaded by highly adaptable, mostly complex lifeforms, whose circumstances of existence are furthest removed from the life-giving conditions of their origin.
Let us now come back to the development of predatory behaviour, where we see a very special solution to the problem of restoring an energy-flow through a population of living organisms; after the situation has become a static balance, or stalemate, of competitive inhibition. The phagocytosis of one living organism by another upsets this balance completely, since the competitive needs of the phagocytised form, (destroyed and assimilated by the stronger lifeform), have been removed, and the sources of energy required by this lifeform for its maintenance are now free to be utilised by the remaining lifeforms.
At the same time, the phagocytised lifeform becomes a source of ready-made building blocks and energy-supplies for the phagocytising and surviving predator. The balance or competitive stalemate has been destroyed and tends to gravitate towards the survival of the strongest cells, or, individually competing life-forms. These begin to grow and multiply, until, eventually, a new balance has been reached by life-forms with a slightly more powerful and aggressive nature. However, these life-forms are, once again, locked into a competitive stalemate.
Together with the increase in dominance and power, the capability to adapt has also been increased, and the range of possibilities for existence has been enlarged, too. We have seen, how the development of predation on a multi-cellular level has become so successful, that all animal lifeforms are now "obligatory predators" of plant or animal life, and the entire evolution of motoric abilities, together with the concomittant development of the central nervous system, is a result of the demand for manipulative and motoric skills; primarily, for the purpose of obtaining food through an act of predatorial behaviour; be it the "hunt" of another animal, or, the "harvesting" of vegetating lifeforms.
There can be no doubt that man's capabilities, including his vast arsenal of mental abilities and motoric skills, are a direct result of our predatory way of existence.
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Chapter 14
Multi-cellular life; free will, understanding, and the concept of a "human break-through".
The understanding of suffering.Before we can trace a clear transition between the evolutionary origins of life and the element of behavioural choice, (the plasticity of our "free will"), or, the ability to conceptualise and communicate verbally, we will have to look at many break-throughs that have occurred throughout the development of multi-cellular, animal existence.
Strange as it may seem, we should, and, we are, indeed, able to relate, even, our ability to feel love and compassion, the ability to understand and behave morally, as well as the ability to appreciate beauty and experience happiness; we are able to relate all these developments to the mechanisms of natural selection, when we study and analyse our biological, evolutionary heritage.
The ultimate goal for man is to explain himself; to see, why he believes in God, why he is so contradictory and wide-ranging in his emotions and moods; why he can be the pinnacle of altruism, or the most brutal and perverse lifeform on earth. All these developments can and should be understood within the generalised insights we can obtain from looking at the mechanisms of nature. Even the mechanisms of our cultural heritage, the emergence of man, and the break-through of intelligence, the sudden flowering of civilisations, their rise, bloom and inevitable decay, can be grasped with the concepts of biological energy relationships, similar in nature to the principles described so far.
In the following pages, we will try to trace the break-through of the multi-cellular organisation, the specialisation in form and function, as well as this most interesting experiment of nature; flexibility of the behavioural choice. The latter represents an attempt by the mechanisms of natural selection to relinquish, at least, to some extent, the rigid biochemical encoding of behaviour patterns in favour of a perilous experiment with individualised intelligence. We have to outline, as persuasively as possible, the contributions made by our biological heritage; not only, in the characteristics of our behaviour and the choices of our voluntary "will", but also, in our structures of knowledge and beliefs.
We have alluded to the idea of a "conceptual relativity" in the previous essay. These concepts are based upon the biological organisation of our central nervous system, and, we have traced the parallels between the mechanisms of understanding and the acquisition of knowledge on the one hand, and the economising limitations of our neurological functions on the other. We will try to emphasise the emergence of the attitudes of tolerance and understanding; not, on the basis of divine commandments, but, on an understanding of our common, biological heritage.
We advocate the attitude of tolerance; not, because we accept this on the authority of a divine commandment, but, because we realise, how relative all our concerns and ideas really are. We are tolerant, because we understand the biological basis of our psychological and emotional experiences.
Eventually, we will understand the nature of suffering and the inevitability of defeat; not, as a pre-requisite to eternal salvation, but, as a psychological equivalent of our inherent fragility, and, we will accept, and overcome, death and despair; not, by the hope and expectation of eternal happiness, but, by acknowledgeing our psychological interwovenness, as well as the relativity of the experience of individuality and independence. We will accept our anxieties as the price we have to pay for our intelligence and the faculty of the "free will".
We may succeed in merging into a global, supra-individual structure, but, we may, also, end nature's experiment with the faculty of individualised intelligence through our belligerent behaviour. At least, we may well end this particular experiment with the possibilities of behavioural flexibility; on this particular planet.
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Chapter 15
The newborn human infant; developmental characteristics.
The genetic "anlage" of the behaviour of parental care.
Genetic potentials and cultural content.
A comparison between the mechanisms of embryogenesis and the development of mental abilities after birth.
Flexibility and choice.
The loss of directional flexibility over a period of time.The newborn human infant has already gone through a remarkable anatomical and physiological development under the guidance of the genetic code, when it comes into the world with a most wide-ranging set of potential abilities. The ability to develop patterns of skilled behaviour, (based on acquired structures of conceptual thought and manipulative dexterity), leads to the possibility of a precise fine-tuning of individual behaviour in accordance with local environmental circumstances, but, at the same time, the need for such a long learning period leaves the human infant a most vulnerable creature as well.
The need for a prolonged period of parental and social guidance during the time-span of maturation, (ranging from twelve to twenty years or so), is well known, and the remarkable vulnerability of the human infant, compared to many other lifeforms, will find few dissenting opinions. While the human baby is not unique in its requirements for a long post-natal period of development and maturation, (necessary for the acquisition of skills and abilities), we may argue, with reasonable confidence, that the human individual relies more fully for its survival on learned behaviour patterns than any other lifeform we know.
The overall range of human capabilities is determined by the genetically organised, physical constitution of our organism, including the central nervous system. The ability to form mental images and conceptual abstractions of our sense impressions, as well as the ability communicate these concepts and experiences in various ways by the ingenious and highly effective method of "verbal symbolisation", are universally present in the human species. Because of this fact, we have to assume, that these potentials have been genetically endowed and reside in the anatomical and physiological organisation of the brain, as well as our organism as a whole.
Without a proper set of environmental circumstances, however, (such as suitable instructions by the parental generation, leading to a basically secure existence), the development of learned skills will not take place. Walking would probably occur without much goal-directed teaching, but, let us not forget, that, without adequate security, provided by its social environment, survival of the infant would not have been possible. The behaviour patterns of basic child-care, protection and instruction or stimulation, as well as the transfer of these patterns of parental care to the younger generations, must, therefore, be encoded genetically in every generation of human beings. These behaviour patterns are stimulated and come to the fore in all members of the human species, as long as the maturation processes are proceeding normally.
The potential for forming concepts, together with the ability to symbolise rudimentary forms of logic, the modification of emotional behaviour patterns by more differentiated and discriminatory functions of grasping reality in the emotionally neutral zone, the instinctive drives, and, even, the need for structures of belief and explanation; all these essential outlines of the human personality were laid-down in many millions of years of pre-human and human development. Fortunately, they are encoded genetically, and they are, therefore, securely protected from rapid change.
What is flexible, however, is the emphasis that can be placed during the period of post-natal growth and maturation on a particular area of development. While there must be a certain variability of the genetically encoded potentials for skilled development, (with certain affinities or predilections for one area or another), we can safely state, that the normal, embryologically well-formed and healthy infant, as well as the psychologically well-protected and well-stimulated youngster, has, indeed, an enormous range of potentials.
During embryonic growth, cell differentiations and specialisations in function develop under the direction of the genetic code. Specialisations in form and function occur at precisely timed intervals, resulting in specific relationships of inter-dependence. We see, that the developing embryonic cells are only at certain times susceptible to a stimulus for differentiation and further specialisation. Once a differentiation has taken place, flexibility has been lost; at least, to a large degree, since it is not possible to reverse the specialised trend to any significant extent. At each developmental stage, the acquisition of a specialised skill or capability is obtained at the price of a commitment to a certain mode of existence.
The post-natal period of acquiring skills reveals similar, if not identical mechanisms, whereby the growing and unfolding individual is frequently placed in a position of choice. One particular path of development is obtained at the price of relinquishing another potential. Certain areas of acquired behaviour are commonly and clearly linked to survival. Skills like the use of language or symbolic communications, basic hunting and food-gathering techniques, walking, running and climbing; all these acquired skills have to be developed in order to be able to survive. However, in the more sophisticated forms of social integration, the specialisation of functions and the interdependence of relationships emphasise the need for special skills, and, it becomes evolutionary tolerable, desirable even, to carry-out such specialisations to a high degree of mutual interdependence and reliance.
Within a sophisticated society of human beings, the acquisition of a highly specialised skill becomes the reason, as well as the means, for the continued existence of a mechanism of specialisation. These mechanisms of specialisation become the primary reason for social integration or interdependence, and, therefore, the stimulus for acquiring specialised skills continues to operate in every complex social environment. It is clear, however, that these specialised skills find their value and usefulness in the stability of such a complex and sophisticated social order. These skills require, therefore, a consistent utilisation of interdependencies, when, e.g., a human being makes use of the specialised skills of other people to cover the full range of its existential needs.
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Chapter 16
Divergent developments and specialisations in functions.
Various forms of learning.
The factor of "talent" and its development.
Art and the musician.
Instrumental performance and the ability to compose.
The development of conceptual capabilities.
Conceptual structuring.
The instrumentalist and the "intellectualist".
Modes of expression during various stages of the personality development.
Beauty and truthfulness.Let us look at some of the divergent developments that take place in the large, modern, sophisticated, relatively stable and affluent societies. Cultural diversity is a direct result of the divergent specialisations in function we mentioned in the previous chapter; especially, when the level of affluence can support a reasonably large and varied group of highly specialised people, be they scientists, artists, businessmen, philosophers or physicians.
What takes place during this process of learning and acquiring a skill, knowledge, or, an ability of one sort or another? We should make a distinction, here, between the various forms of learning we can see. The developing, maturing individual is, primarily, pre-occupied with learning motoric and intellectual skills that will supply the adolescent or young adult with a useful, more or less permanent and continuously used framework of abilities. Once this framework has been acquired, it needs a measure of continuous re-enforcement, either by the practice of motoric skills, or the refreshment of intellectual and conceptual skills; but, on the whole, we may say, that the continuous stream of incoming sensory data is processed, at all times, within the confines of a specific framework of acquired knowledge and skills.
Experience has taught us, a long time ago, that the structural build-up of a skilled pattern of behaviour, (be it motoric and manipulative, or intellectual and conceptual in nature, or, a combination of both), is relatively easy for the young. In the case of acquiring highly skilled motoric structures of neural organisation, (such as acrobatics, the playing of musical instruments, or voice control), the complexity of such a skill is so great, that it has to be laid-down early in life, and, it has to be developed under the guidance of competent and intelligent instructors. This is necessary in order to reach the maximum possible unfolding of a talent or potential.
We see, how young instrumentalists, guided and taught well, and endowed, of course, with a remarkable affinity or potential called "talent", quickly acquire a degree of technical competence that becomes impossible to reach for anyone, whose optimum learning period has passed. The musical artist is a highly specialised individual, but, we should clearly distinguish two, almost entirely separate aspects to the art of music. The instrumental technique, or, rather, the acquisition of the technique to play a chosen instrument to perfection, requires a remarkably differentiated and finely structured skill, which is primarily motoric in nature. This skill is organised into a clever, systematicallly taught, conceptual structure of analytical solutions for technical or motoric problems.
There is little doubt, that these technical, manipulative skills of a motoric nature have to be acquired, and acquired well, at an early age, in order to develop a maximum dexterity of expressive abilities. However, the art of musical composition is an entirely different skill, affinity or ability. The youngster who is able to acquire the technical mastery of a musical instrument, has, undoubtedly, an affinity for the artistic expression of the various compositions written for his instrument, but the full realisation or understanding of the artistic expression requires, often, a mature personality. This delay in expressive affinity, as well as the ability to perform, flawlessly, whenever this expressive affinity has matured, provides a lifelong stimulus to the musician and constitutes a great advantage compared to the acrobat, athlete or figure-skater, where the potential for expressing a deep understanding of human realities is not so readily available.
The delay in reaching full artistic understanding frees the young musician from a precipitous desire to perform a composition to a level of technical and artistic perfection. The difficulty with the older individual, who is still trying to learn to play a musical instrument, is, precisely, this discrepancy between his conceptual or artistic ability to perform or re-create a loved musical composition in his mind, and his technical incompetence to do so when playing his chosen instrument. The lack of skill to manipulate the musical instrument to professional standards, as well as the consequent lack of expressive ability, is a constant source of frustration and tension. This tension is caused by the discrepancy between the visualised, or, rather, the "audiolised" artistic concept, and the inability to come anywhere close in an actual instrumental performance. This leads to a tension and frustration that is often poorly understood.
We begin to accept our artistic limitations, when we understand the limitations in technical competence resulting from efforts to acquire such an ability after the maturation period has passed, or, when a less successful conceptual and manipulative structure has been acquired, together with its inherent limitations and short-comings.
The skills of writing music or verbal compositions are far less dependent upon instrumental techniques, but a sound and wide knowledge of expressive capabilities of the various instruments, or verbalisable concepts and idea-structures, together with an understanding of, or feeling for, the possibilities of harmonic progression and melodic variation, as well as a general understanding of human abilities and frailties; all these factors will give the musically gifted individual the ability to compose for a long period of time; independently from the ability to play a particular instrument to perfection.
Once a performing artist has acquired a useful structure of technical, expressive capabilities, he will be able to channel an almost endless variety of musical impulses into a satisfactory and enjoyable performance, but he requires steady practice to re-enforce and maintain these abilities.
In the conceptual field, there is a less clear-cut, but, nevertheless, similar need for a structural development that becomes a scaffold for the faculty of understanding and explaining. These skills allow the conceptual composer to handle most, if not all subsequent information and sense-data with a measure of nonchalant ease. The ability to handle a massive volume of data, in particular, when these data are somewhat poorly or seemingly arbitrarily related to each other, reflects, strongly, our intellectual dexterity, because this skill determines our ability to manipulate, successfully or usefully, the various problems and tasks that are laid before us.
The ability to classify, categorise and improvise the recall of numerous details, is essential in the intellectual struggle for survival, and this ability is certainly a most useful tool for obtaining dominance, power and influence. However, we should not forget, that an intellectual capability, such as the possibility to communicate precisely, convincingly or enthousiastically, is also an instrument of beauty. It is an instrument of beauty to be able to see a truth or communicate a convincing argument. It is an instrument of beauty to inspire and educate, as well as to excercise the power of eloquence and dominance.
We see, then, that conceptual structuring is essential for our ability to handle a stream of sense impressions orderly and easily, and, this ability has to be acquired, learned and thought-about. It has to be taught, because we lack the skills to build-up such a useful framework of related mental structures from scratch, without acquiring these skills from our social environment and the relevant cultural code. We are unable to build-up these skills entirely from our own personal experiences. While the instrumentalist learns his motoric structures and is able to play his instrument, once and for all, and to play it well, the intellectual thought-structures require constant changes and an on-going review of their validity.
At some time in the development of every individual or social grouping, rigidly taught concepts of a religious or scientific nature will be useful or popular, at least, for a while. However, rigid reality perceptions tend to lose their relevance fairly quickly, and, they do not seem to play a significant role in many contemporary and affluent societies. Perhaps, this is a sign of adaptation, or decay, or, possibly, a sign of both.
There are remarkable behavioural similarities between the instrumentalist and the "intellectualist". The young performing artist, confident, or, even, "cocky" in his newly acquired mastery over his instrument, joyfully expressing his manipulative powers and technical prowess, will, inevitably, emphasise, early in his career, a dazzling virtuosity, which becomes an expression of his youthful exuberance. His performance is a subconscious expression of his own personal vitality, rather than the composer's musical ideas, but, later, tempered by failure and seasoned by a sense of the relativity of all values, and, inevitably, challenged by the younger generations who are snapping at his position of prominence, the performing artist will acquire a deeper understanding of the musical qualities, and, he will become more sensitive to the beauty of sound, rather than the brilliance of technique.
Then, the fusion of technical mastery, musical understanding, human sensitivity and intellectual clarity, will lead to the development of the true artist, the persuasive conveyor of beauty and integrity. This will culminate in a meaningful, joyful expression of a large range of sentiments and capabilities. The artistic expression will be truly human, yet, specialised in a particular field of expertise.
The skilled intellectual, the confident scientist, proud of newly acquired knowledge and confident in his ability to express himself with clarity and dominate his environment; the "intellectualist", too, will use his powers and skills to impress, and, to seek his niche in the social surroundings. He will use his powers and skills to earn a living and establish his reputation, but later, the hollow virtuosity of scientific or intellectual posturing will evoke a sense of sadness and futility; a feeling of missed essence, and, such an experience may lead to a renewed drive to search for truth and beauty.
Eventually, the wise human being, regardless of his capabilities of expression, and, regardless of his field of expertise, wants to obtain a sense of beauty and meaning in his work, and, he wants to see the larger relationships and dynamics of human experiences. If he is able to throw a light of new relevance on his activities, he may become less ostentatious and less ebullient, but also, more content and stable in his relationships with the social surroundings.
A sense of truthfulness, be it in the field of artistic expression or knowledge, reflects the realisation, that the meaning and value of a specific incidence of beauty, accomplishment or expression transcends the value or significance for this particular individual. A sense of truthfulness reflects a generality. It reflects a poorly verbalised reality with a wide-ranging sphere of relevance; a generality of truth and essence that goes beyond the meaning of individual existence or experience.
In essence, we are dealing, here, with a shift away from our personal concerns, which is manifested in the feeling of being part of a meaningful, supra-individual entity of human existence. This feeling is difficult to grasp or express, and, even more difficult to sustain or maintain. Often, the emotion of beauty is nothing more than a moment of personal bliss; an absence of contradictions, but, sometimes, the realisation takes place that a larger entity does exist; where personal ambitions, misery and unhappiness become only a temporary and arbitrary point of view, disappearing in a consideration and contemplation of the unity of human existence as a whole, away from personal existential concerns.
Indeed, the ability to express, intuitively, a general validity, be it artistically or intellectually, seems to be an essential factor in this happy state of the human mind; conceptualised, here, rather vaguely, as an appreciation for "something beautiful". The experience of beauty is always a somewhat fleeting or temporary appreciation, and, perhaps, this is rightly so, since its vagueness and varying imagery indicate the essential impossibility of grasping criteria of beauty once and for all. It is certainly impossible to capture the essence of an experience of beauty with the concepts of a social dogma or an absolute truth.
The learning of a specialised skill, or, the grasp of an intellectual structure of understanding, reflects, in essence, a search for possibilities of existence that lie within the complex patterns of mutually beneficial relationships. We, members of mankind, are continuing these evolutionary explorations in the search for existence possibilities, displayed, partly, as dispersive tendencies in a struggle for survival, and, partly, as a unifying, supra-individual trend towards multi-individual relationships that are tentatively testing the future of symbiotic harmonies for intelligent and conscious forms of living existence.
Learning about our limitations and our possibilities is as important as exhibiting our skills. Being aware of the boundaries of what is possible, the realisation of the temporary nature of all life-forms, and, in particular, the awareness of the transience of our own individual existence, may lead us to focus on the larger, more permanent traits of culturally transmitted patterns of human expression, be it in the arts or the sciences. Such a shift in focus and concern may be called "wisdom", and should be helpful for our attempts to understand ourselves and the nature of living existence.
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Summary
Everything changes.
The ubiquitous presence of pressure- or tension-gradients.
Gravity, thermal pressures, chemical potentials.
Energy relationships and chemical transformations.
Fluidity, water, and life's mechanisms.
The inundating valley.
The crater and the rim.
The break-through.
Analogies with biochemical processes and the influx of solar energy.
Speculative aspects of biochemical evolution.
Probable mechanisms, seen in a broad philosophical over-view.
The unimaginable vastness of the natural experiment with evolutionary change.
The search for possibilities of existence.
The physical evolution of the earth.
Polymerisations and the interdependence of chemical reactions and their products.
The primordial protoplasm, and the interplay between chemical and physical characteristics.
The importance of the phenomenon of a "break-through".
The chemical chain-reaction.
Energy relationships and the concept of an equilibrium.
Adaptability and the requirements of internal fluidity.
The free-floating cell.
The probable origins of cellular life and the sequestration of self- duplicating fragments of the primordial protoplasm.
The need for a guided sequence of events.
The role of a template.
Free oxygen and the first pollution-crisis for life on earth.
The oxygen revolution.
Oxygen respiration.
The complementary aspects of photo-synthesis and oxygen- respiration.
The break-through reconsidered.
The phenomenon of symbiosis.
Symbiosis, parasitic relationships and predation; a discussion in the light of energy relationships.
The flow of least resistance.
The life-form as a "gully" for the flow of biological energy.
The obligatory aspects of internal repair; energy requirements.
The left-over energy and the concept of the "elan vital".
The dynamic balance of living organisms; with each other and their environment.
The break-through of behavioural plasticity.
The species of man and the break-through of concept formation.
The time-span of biochemical evolution.
A review of our concepts about evolutionary change.
The diurnal variation of sunlight and tidal currents; flood and ebb.
Energy-requiring biochemical reactions.
Analogies with "work" done by water currents.
The formation of a high-energy, chemical bond, and the possibilities for transferring this energy to other chemical reaction- patterns.
The transience of the existence of a rapid or a waterfall.
Dependence on a continuous fluidity and adaptability.
Sequentially organised events.
Mechanisms of duplication or reproduction.
The phenomenon of biochemical senescence.
A renewal of the energy-flow with the processes of duplication and rejuvenation.
The "elan vital"; its biochemical, biological, evolutionary and psychological aspects.
Population growth and the limitations of food- and energy- supplies.
A review of the symbiotic and predatory relationships between living organisms.
The compression of lifeforms into densely populated centers.
Energy considerations of the predatory solution to the competitive stalemate; competitive pressures and available energy-supplies.
The organisational key of the genetic code.
Internal symbiotic relationships of the multi-cellular organism.
Symbiosis and task differentiation.
The human individual and his social surroundings.
Applying energy considerations to motivations and instinctive drives.
The elan vital; goal-patterns, and the frustration of drives.
Energy-flow through a psychological system.
A focus for the elan vital.
Predatory aspects and neurotic suppressions.
The psychological break-through.
Harmony and energy-flow at the level of social integration.
The rise of social nuclei.
The bundling and synchronisation of the elan vital.
Homeostasis, and the shifting levels of a dynamic balance.
Factors in the development of social cohesion; power and domination.
A sweeping summary of man, elan vital, evolution, and the development of behavioural and moral choices.
The on-going search for a dynamic balance between man and his environment.
The homeostasis or "optimum equilibrium" of the single organism.
The need for challenge and the path to decay.
Goal patterns, and the discrepancy between the actual and the desired status.
The fine line between challenge and discomfort.
Displacement forces.
Various forms of stress.
The sense of gratitude and the mechanisms of happiness.
Beneficial and harmful levels of stress.
Social decay.
The accentuation needed for a convincing artistic portrayal.
The role of personal safety and its blunting effect on the ability to sympathise.
Artificial and trivial goal-patterns as an indicator of impending social decay.
Possibilities for social rejuvenation.
Stress adaptations.
Courage and bravery.
The communal facilitation or suppression of various emotional experiences.
Stress adaptation in the religious attitude; a cause of "internal stress".
The side-effects of exaggerated religious endurance and fanaticism.
Neurotic tendencies.
The exhaustive effects of chronic stress.
The role of combat; a natural but primitive solution to dissipate tensions.
Defeat, humiliation and suffering.
Communal mechanisms in stress adaptations.
Energy considerations in the mechanisms of social cohesion and decay.
Another look at the mechanisms of symbiosis.
A review of symbiotic relationships.
Parasitic and predatory forms of existence.
Biochemical, cellular and multi-cellular symbiosis and phagocytosis.
The evolution of existence possibilities.
Multi-cellular life; free will, understanding, and the concept of a "human break-through".
The understanding of suffering.
The newborn human infant; developmental characteristics.
The genetic "anlage" of the behaviour of parental care.
Genetic potentials and cultural content.
A comparison between the mechanisms of embryogenesis and the development of mental abilities after birth.
Flexibility and choice.
The loss of directional flexibility over a period of time.
Divergent developments and specialisations in functions.
Various forms of learning.
The function of "talent" and its development.
Art and the musician.
Instrumental performance and the ability to compose.
The development of conceptual capabilities.
Conceptual structuring.
The instrumentalist and the "intellectualist".
Modes of expression during various stages of the personality development.
Beauty and truthfulness.
@M.Heuff
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