OSCILLATIONS







A Study in Thought

sa024



by





Marius Heuff

Chapter 1

Content

Oscillatory forms of existence; definition and characteristics.
Matter; seen as an oscillating form of energy.
Examples of oscillatory phenomena; dampened and undampened oscillations.
The world of sub-atomic existence.
The swinging oscillations of the pendulum; ellipsoid and circular movements.
Oscillations in a spatially enclosed system, and the open-ended wave-front, traveling at a uniform speed.
The transfer of energy along a wave-front.

An oscillation is a regularly recurring phenomenon, where the recurrent patterns of existence form identical cycles of events; at least, it seems reasonable to consider this generalised statement as a valid summary of a stable or undampened oscillation, while a transient or dampened oscillation shows recurrent cycles that are not entirely identical. If the regularly recurring phenomenon is not exactly identical from one cycle to the next, we postulate a change in the mass-energy content of the system that shows a dampened oscillation, and, we will see, that nearly all oscillatory forms are subject to a slight change in the value of the mass-energy content as time passes by.

The importance of the concept that an undampened oscillation forms a series of identical cycles, lies in the fact, that such an oscillating system is "at rest", and is not subject to any outside interference or force. These is no "internal or external friction" to cause a loss of energy, which usually takes place in the form of heat or electro-magnetic radiation. The undampened oscillating complex forms a stable pattern existence, in spite of the fact, that, at each moment of the cycle, the internal conditions of the oscillating system are changing.

We have, here, a remarkable phenomenon or observation; on the one hand, the oscillatory complex appears as a stable entity, and, if the focus of our attention is upon the totality of the recurring existence patterns, rather than upon the changes that take place within a cycle, we will have no hesitation, or difficulties, to acknowledge the existence of these static aspects. On the other hand, we may emphasise the phenomena taking place within a cycle of events, and the appearance is, then, one of continuous change, in spite of the static appearance of the overall phenomenon, when seen from a much larger perspective.

In many instances, however, the changing aspects are not as obvious as the static features. As a matter of fact, we would never have discovered the oscillatory nature of many apparently immobile forms of existence without the tools of modern technology, as we can see, so clearly, in our contemporary concepts about the atomic structure of matter. Who would have thought, even a hundred years ago, that the most stable and unchanging forms of matter would all be composed of atoms, rocking in a continuous oscillation within their crystalline lattices; an oscillation, which is the atomic expression of the phenomenon of temperature, and, we are not even thinking, here, about the numerous oscillatory phenomena that have been observed, or, rather, postulated, within the structure of the atom and its nucleus.

We are, probably, justified to consider matter as a form of energy that has been locked into an oscillatory form of existence, and, we hope to make this strange and somewhat sweeping statement acceptable in the course of this discussion about the nature and existence of matter and energy. We hope to show, that matter and energy are, in essence, identical in nature, and, we hope to show, that matter is only one particular way in which energy can exist; nl., a rotatory, orbital, oscillating form of existence, where the range of motion is limited to a small volume of space.

Let us first look at some of the more familiar and readily observed oscillatory phenomena, and, we think, immediately, about the pendulum of a clock, the vibrations of a tuning fork, or, the strings of a musical instrument. Oscillatory movements of particles can occur in all kinds of media, such as liquids, (water), gases, (air), or solids, e.g., the sounding board of a musical instrument.

In the pendulum, we see a good example of an oscillation, where a continuous interchange takes place between kinetic and potential energy. Each phase is labile and does not exist without change for any length of time, but the whole system has a certain stability, even, if we take into account the loss of energy caused by a variety of "frictional processes".

All the large, macroscopic, oscillatory phenomena lose energy by internal or external friction, including those oscillations created by man, such as the pendulum of a clock or the vibrations of a musical instrument. These oscillations are, therefore, "dampened", and, they die-out slowly, unless they are artificially sustained. In a "bowed" instrument, such as the violin, the bow supplies continuously energy to the vibrating strings and sustains, thereby, the tone of the instrument. The sounds of percussive instruments are not sustained, as we see in the piano, where vibrations caused by the percussion of a felt-hammer against a number of strings die-out and represent a "dampened" oscillation.

We stress these phenomena because of the underlying and unifying concept, that energy can exist in the form of an oscillation, and, that many forms of matter carry such oscillatory energies. All matter has a certain temperature, and, we will see in the course of our discussion, that temperature is nothing more than an oscillation of atoms and molecules. This quality of "temperature" represents, therefore, a form of energy.

In the case of the pendulum, the energy-content of the oscillation changes between a state of kinetic energy, when the pendulum swings at its greatest speed through its lowest point, and, a state of potential or static energy, when it rests, for a moment, at its highest point, ready to swing back into the opposite direction.

The frequency of these oscillations is determined by certain physical constants, such as the length of the pendulum or the length and tension of a vibrating string. The frequency of an electronic oscillation depends on the capacity of the system in which the oscillating flow of electrons is taking place. Electrons flow back and forth between two electronic reservoirs, or "capacitors". All man-made oscillatory systems experience a certain amount of internal friction, and, they will slowly dissipate their energy-content into the surroundings, unless constantly replenished. The large, natural oscillatory systems on earth are all subject to friction of one sort or another, but, in the emptiness of outer space, or, the apparently perfect elasticity of atomic and nuclear binding forces, we see many examples of undampened or nearly undampened oscillations.

The concepts, related to the many different oscillatory forms of existence, have been amplified, to a remarkable extent, by investigations and observations of the atomic and sub-atomic world, where the distinction between matter and energy becomes, not only, blurred, but, where all existence, be it matter or energy, seems to find stability in some kind of oscillatory configuration. It is here, in the sub-atomic world, that we are able to see how all matter seems to be represented by energy that has been locked into oscillatory or rotatory movements.

In a rotatory movement, the angular momentum represents a form of kinetic energy, and, this energy-level approaches a constant as the movement changes from a pendular or ellipsoid movement to a circular or rotatory movement. We can easily visualise the change from a pendular movement to an ellipsoid movement, if we imagine the plane of the pendular movement to change, slowly, to a plane that is perpendicular to the plane of the pendular movement. If we give a little nudge to the pendulum, perpendicular to the plane of its swing, as it pauses momentarily at the height of its potential energy, the pendular movement changes to an ellipsoid or rotatory movement.

Purely circular movements, as well as a purely pendular movement, are rare in nature, and, we will consider, therefore, all movements, be they circular, ellipsoid or pendular, as oscillations or rotatory movements, in spite of the fact, that, strictly speaking, the circular movement does not show anymore an interchange between kinetic and potential energies, and loses some of its oscillatory features as it approaches the phenomenon of a whirling motion with a constant speed.

Rotatory, ellipsoid and circular movements are all "closed" movements, in the sense, that they take place in a small volume of space, but, there is also the possibility to find stability in a rapid oscillation which propagates itself as a progressing wave-front. Such a form of stability depends, however, on a continuous forward motion of the wave-front, while the "closed" energy-system depends for its stability upon a regularly recurring oscillation that takes place in the same volume of space, or, at least, in nearly the same volume of space.

A good example of the stability of an "open" oscillation, is the large family of electro-magnetic wave-fronts, including the narrow spectrum of visible light. Energy can also be contained in the constant speed of an inertial body, or clump of matter, traveling in relation to a fixed system of reference, but, this type of kinetic energy depends on the momentum or inertia of the system as a whole, and, it does not depend upon any of the oscillatory phenomena that are taking place within this body of matter.

We are all familiar with the imagery of a traveling wave-front. We only have to look at the ripples in a pool or pond, after an object has been thrown into the water, or, in the less visible propagation of sound-waves in the air. In a traveling wave-front, we see, that kinetic energy is transferred from one particle to the next, because there exists a certain coherence or friction between one particle and the next. A particle receives its energy, and within one, or, at the most, several oscillatory movements, this particle transfers the energy it has received from one neighbour to its neighbour on the other side.

In the case of a "closed oscillation", like a "standing wave", the energy is transferred back again to the source of origin, as the cycle is closed, but, in an open-ended, traveling wave-front, the energy is passed-on from one particle to the next, etc. The energy-content of a wave is, therefore, transferred, spatially, across the medium in which the wave takes place, but, the actual displacement of the particles of this medium, is a dampened oscillation which takes place in a small area or volume of space, because the particle soon returns to a position of "rest" after the wave has passed.

Similar mechanisms play a role in the transfer of energy over an electrical wire, especially, when we consider the energy-transfer taking place as the result of an alternating type of electrical current. Here, a "push" is given against the electrons of a jam-packed conductor, which is "over-flowing" with electrons. These electrons are jostling each other, because they like to keep "elbow room" as a result of their mutual repulsion, based upon electro-static similarity. Because of the (perfect?) elasticity of the electro-static force-field, such a push is rapidly transferred from one end of the conductor to the next, and, the influx of a flow of electrons at one end of the conductor is compensated for by the out-flow of a similar number of electrons at the other end. If the push is continuous, we have a rather even flow or "direct current", but, if there is an alternating push and pull, we have a good example of an oscillation, where each electron is pushed and pulled, and pushes and pulls its neighbour in return. The electron oscillates back and forth over a small trajectory, but the wave of potential energy, or "voltage", travels at a lightning speed along the conductor.

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Chapter 2

Content

The electro-magnetic wave-front; light.
Varying wave-lenghts.
Waves and particles.
The constancy of the speed of light.
The wave and its "medium".
The nature of electro-static and electro-magnetic force-fields.
Magnetism.
The flow of electrons through a conductor.
The relationships between electro-static and electro-magnetic phenomena.
Quantitative manipulation became possible before qualitative understanding.

Let us now consider the electro-magnetic ray or wave. This is the most difficult form of energy to visualise, since it behaves under certain circumstances as a wave-front, while, on other occasions, its behaviour is more accurately described as a stream of small particles, or "photons". Light is a bundle of electro-magnetic wave-fronts with a narrow range of wave-lengths to which the visual sense-organs have become sensitive during the long evolutionary development of life.

Since the speed of all electro-magnetic waves is constant, at least, in "empty space", a short wave-length, means, a high frequency. If the wave-lengths become minute fractions of a milimeter, we come into the realm of X-rays, cosmic rays, gamma rays, and, if we look at the spectrum of the long wave-lengths, such as those of a kilometer or more, we slide into the zone of radio-waves with low frequencies. It is important to realise, that the differences between electro-magnetic waves represented by X-rays or cosmic rays, and those, which are light, heat, radar or radio-waves, are purely a matter of frequency or wave-length. It seems reasonable to state, that the higher the frequency of an electro-magnetic wave, the more penetrating and powerful it is likely to be, and, the more its behaviour resembles a stream of particles, rather than the propagation of a wave-front.

The observation, or assumption, that the speed of light is constant, (at least, in the emptiness of outer space), has become the foundation for a far-reaching series of mental images, summarised as the concepts of special and general relativity. When we observe the wave-propagation of visible light through a medium such as water, air or solids, it is clear, that the speed of the propagation of a wave-front, depends on the nature and characteristics of the medium through which the wave travels. However, the nature of the "medium" in which the electro-magnetic wave travels through space, is a much more difficult and controversial concept and represents a fruitful topic for debate.

What is this "medium" through which the electro-magnetic wave travels, or, is there no "medium" in the emptiness of outer space? Can an electro-magnetic wave travel without a medium, or, does it create its own medium? What, really, is an electro-magnetic wave? How do we have to visualise the inter-relationships between a magnetic and electro-static field of force, and, what, really, is the nature of such a field? What is the nature of electro-static attraction and repulsion, and, what is magnetism? How do these phenomena relate to the ideas and concepts of a photon or a wave-packet? (wellen-pakete)

Our ideas about the existence of electro-static fields have come from observations, where we see that certain materials are able to accumulate a large number of "excess" electrons, or "electric charge". The accumulation of excess electrons can happen in a variety of ways. For example, the friction between a plastic comb and dry hair can cause the build-up of an electro-static potential, as we all know, and, this build-up may also happen with a variety of other materials, such as pieces of clothing made from synthetic materials, especially, when the air is dry.

We can also create an excess accumulation of electrons on a conductor. A piece of conducting material consists of a metal, where a number of electrons circling in the outer shells are bound quite loosely to their atomic nuclei. This loose binding is a result of the fact, that the positive charge of the nucleus is insufficient to keep all the electrons that are situated into the outer shell, firmly bound to the nucleus. These electrons are, therefore, easily displaced, making the piece of material a "conductor" for a flow of electrons, but, the "empty spaces" in the outer electron shells are also easily filled-up, imparting, often, a net negative charge to such a piece of metal material. This piece of material has then a "charge" and shows an electro-static field potential or force-field. The existence of such a "field of force" is demonstrated by the degree of repulsion exhibited by similarly charged pieces of material.

As a corollary, it is possible to rob a piece of material of a large number of its rather freely floating electrons. If many electrons are missing, a "charge" will also be shown, but the charge will be opposite in its characteristics compared to the charge shown by an excess of electrons. A strong repulsion will be exhibited by objects with a similar charge, while opposite charges will attract each other. The relationships between such force-fields, created by an excess or short-fall of electrons, have been described in all basic texts on electro-magnetism which discuss these phenomena, and, these force-fields of electro-static attraction and repulsion have been quantitised rather precisely. From this, our concepts about electro-static fields of force have emerged. The charge of an electron is called, rather arbitrarily, "negative", while the charge created by the lack of an electron is called a "positive" charge.

The phenomenon of magnetism has been found to occur as a natural phenomenon of certain naturally existing materials, such as, e.g., a "lodestone". Such a piece of material will align itself roughly to the North-South axis of the earth, if it exists as a "needle" and has been suspended in the middle, free from any significant friction when trying to align itself with the earth's magnetic field. The cause of earth-magnetism is still not clearly understood, but, it finds its origins, probably, in the rotation of the earth around a solid central core of metals such as iron, creating some kind of a "dynamo-effect" because of the fact that the mantle, surrounding this core, is viscous, allowing for a slipping between the outer and inner layers of the earth. We will explore later, more in detail, the creation of a magnetic field of force by a rotational flow of electrons.

Naturally occurring "magnets", or pieces of material that have a tendency to align themselves with the magnetic field of the earth, have also the capability to align small scraps of iron, (as well as other metals that can be magnetised), along path-ways that indicate, once again, the existence of a field of force. However, in contrast with the existence of a single pole of electro-static force, (such as we see in the point-source of electric charge of an electron), the magnetic force is always a dipole; the lines of force run in ever larger and weaker loops from one pole to the other. These poles are arbitrarily designated as North and South poles, because of their affinity to line-up with the North-South axis of the earth. (The magnetic axis of the earth does not correspond exactly with the geometric axis, but we will not discuss these discrepancies, here.)

A most remarkable discovery showed, that a flow of electrons through a conductor which had been coiled-up in a spiral, creates a field of force that is in all aspects identical to a magnetic force-field. This force-field runs through the axis of the coil in a plane that is perpendicular to the plane of the electrical current. What is the reason for this phenomenon? The answer to this question, I feel, is still not entirely clear, but it became quickly apparent, that this artificially created "magnetic field", was indistinguishable from a naturally occurring magnetic field, and, it became also clear, that the strength of such a magnetic field, created by an electrical current, was directly related to the magnitude of the current.

Since we are dealing, here, with a quick review of ideas that try to relate the phenomena of electro-static and magnetic fields of force, it becomes important to analyse, in as much detail as we can, the relationships that exist between these two force-fields, in particular, since the concept of the electro-magnetic wave-front, or ray, is based upon a precise visualisation and understanding of the relationships between these two force-fields.

For a long time, little progress was made in efforts to elucidate these relationships, and, therefore, the main attention shifted to a quantitization and mathematical description of these phenomena. We reached the curious situation, that it became possible to manipulate and predict the behaviour of electro-magnetic force-fields with a remarkable degree of precision, without having a clear-cut idea, what, precisely, an electro-magnetic wave-front really is. In a sense, we are still in the same situation today, since we can manipulate light expertly, but, we still have no clear-cut mental imagery, or concept, about the nature of light, or, electro-magnetic vibrations in general.

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Chapter 3

Content

Photon; concept and definition; relationships with the electro-magnetic wave-front.
Electron-positron collision; the labile existence of the "spin-less" or "virtual" electron.
The photon as a "wave-packet"; mirror images.
Fluctuating force-fields, resulting from mutually induced electro-static and magneto-motive force-fields.
The "virtual photon", or the "speed-less" wave-packet.
The creation of orbital energy forms; elementary particles.
The essential similarity between a virtual photon and virtual electron; instability, a lack of momentum.
Transitions between open and closed oscillations.
The decay of an electron orbit around a nucleus.
The dissipation of excess energy by a rapid oscillation of the electron
The creation of a photon.
Orbital movements of electrons on a large scale.
The magneto-motive force, the transformation of voltages.
Similarities between large-scale and small-scale oscillations of electrons.

We have seen, that light is only a small segment of the spectrum of electro-magnetic wave-lengths, but, let us now turn to a much more modern imagery, where we consider light to be made-up of particle-like wave-packets, or "photons". We have to ask ourselves, how we can relate the concepts of a photon to those of an electro-magnetic wave-front.

There are a number of concepts in modern physics, where we visualise a series of possible events, whenever a head-on collision takes place between an electron and its mirror-image, the anti-electron or positron, which spins in the opposite direction. Such a collision will produce, momentarily, an "unstable electron", whose spin has been canceled by the collision with an electron spinning in the opposite direction. A "spin-less" electron is an extremely labile entity and immediately "falls-apart" into a pair, (or more?) of photons, each pair representing, presumably, a set of mirror images.

How do we have to visualise a mirror-image of a photon? Before we can answer this question, we have to have a more detailed imagery of a photon. A photon, or "wave-packet", is a short burst of electro-magnetic vibrations, which are so compact that they tend to behave as a particle. The mirror-image of such a photon or wave-packet is visualised by reversing the "cork-screw movements" of the alternating electro-static and magneto-motive force-fields.

We will elaborate these concepts further in the following chapters, and, let us say, here, only, that the electro-magnetic wave-front seems to fit the description of a mutually induced relationship between a vibrating or fluctuating field of electro-static force and a similarly vibrating or fluctuating field of magneto-motive or magnetic force. The fluctuating, vibrating or undulating characteristics of one field is capable of inducing a similarly fluctuating, vibrating or undulating field of its partner, and vice versa, and, we may visualise, then, a series of mental images, showing us, how a vibrating, fluctuating or undulating electro-static field creates a similarly vibrating, fluctuating or undulating magnetic field at right angles to itself. This, in turn, induces again an electro-static vibration, etc. We can see a "cork-screw movement", because we have some evidence to believe, that the induction of these alternative field takes place, either, in a clockwise, or, in an anti-clockwise direction.

However, let us not continue this line of thought, here, because we will come back upon it, time and again, in the remainder of this essay. As an alternative to the production of a pair of photons from the electron-positron collision, we see, also, the theoretical possibility of the momentary existence of a "virtual photon" as a result of the collision between a photon and an anti-photon. This virtual photon, presumably, has all the characteristics of a regular photon, but it lacks an essential characteristic which makes its existence very short-lived. It lacks the forward momentum of the speed of light.

As we will see, this momentum of forward movement or propagation is necessary for the stability of existence of a real photon, or electro-magnetic wave-packet or wave-front. The collision between photons with an opposite cork-screw movement canceled the forward momentum of the linear propagation of the photon, just as the momenta or "spin" of the electron and the anti-electron, or positron, were canceled, when they collided with each other. If the resulting "spin-less" electron finds stability in a linear or forward motion, we have witnessed its transformation into a "real photon". After the collision between a photon and anti-photon, the forward momentum of both photons has been lost, and the resulting "virtual photon" decays, or finds stability, in the form of a number of "elementary particles", or, orbiting energy-forms.

Such an elementary particle may be represented by the "quark" as conceptualised by nuclear physicists, but, we are more concerned, here, with the principle, that the electron without its angular momentum, or, the photon without its forward momentum, are, in essence, "unstable entities" that are unable to exist, and, they are, therefore, called "virtual". They will, then, transform themselves immediately into "real possibilities of existence", such as an elementary particle with spin or a photon with speed.

Another way of looking at these, apparently opposite or alternative routes for the behaviour of an electron-positron or photon-antiphoton collision, is to see the essential similarity between a virtual photon and a virtual electron. A virtual electron is an electron without spin, and a virtual photon is a photon without linear momentum, and, both are unable to exist for any length of time. Both states are, probably, identical, (if we are dealing with identical levels of energy), because the electron or anti-electron may be seen as an electro-magnetic wave-front, circling around itself, as we hope to show in the course of this essay.

In an electron, as well as the anti-electron, or positron, we may see a photon, or, rather, a number of photons that have become locked into a circular, spinning or rotatory movement, which gives them their stability. If this stability is abolished in an electron-positron collision, the photons "pause" momentarily, and, then, depending on the circumstances, these virtual photons may find stability, either, as a linear form of radiation, a "real" photon, or, they may again find stability in some kind of a spin, forming some sort of an elementary particle.

If we elaborate this imagery somewhat, we can see another way in which photons can be created. Electrons spin in a number of layers around atomic nuclei, and, if one electron-orbit "decays" for one reason or another, the electron will "fall" into a lower shell, situated more closely to the nucleus. However, before it can do so, it has to lose its excess energy, and, this happens by a rapid bouncing of the orbiting electron, back and forth between the two shells. The electron does not have enough energy to sustain its outer orbit, and yet, it has too much energy for the lower orbit. During this "bouncing period", the electron vibrates rapidly between the two orbital shells. The electro-static field that surrounds the bouncing electron is therefore "rippled" by this vibration.

We will see, later, how the orbital movements of an electron across a magnetic field create a magneto-motive field of force, and, we will discuss, how each atom has, therefore, an often complex magneto-motive field around itself. From experiments with large, fluctuating magnetic fields, (which are created by sending an alternating current through a coiled conductor), we know, that a fluctuating magnetic field exerts a strong force upon electrons that are free to move. Upon this principle rests the technique of transforming voltages and inducing electrical currents. We know, now, that a fluctuating, alternating or undulating electro-static field induces a similarly changing magneto-motive or magnetic force-field at right angles to itself.

The rapidly vibrating, oscillating electron, bouncing between two orbital paths, creates, therefore, an electro-magnetic disturbance, which "carries-away" the excess energy as a photon, and, presumably, as a pair of photons that are a mirror image of each other. These photons are traveling into opposite directions, but, otherwise, they are identical in nature. There is, therefore, a certain "resistance" to the rapidly bouncing electron, as it vibrates between the two stable orbital planes, and this resistance absorbs the excess energy of the spinning electron, until it falls, quietly, into its place in the lower orbit. The electro-magnetic vibration then stops, and the photon, or wave-packet, (wellen-pakete), created by the bouncing electron, speeds along with the speed of light, until it is absorbed somewhere else.

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Chapter 4

Content

The electron; a point-source of charge, or, an electro-magnetic wave-packet.
Changing appearances.
Electron-spin and electro-magnetic resonance.
The inter-actions between apparent results and the investigating instrumentation.
The concept of "uncertainty", when determining the characteristics of an electron.
A change in energy-content; absorption or dissipation of energy by an orbiting electron.
The energy and frequency of an electro-magnetic wave-front, and the ability to be absorbed by an orbiting electron.
Orbital characteristic of the electron are determined by the nucleus.
The identification of an atomic nucleus by the absorption characteristics of its encircling electrons.
Absorption and emission spectra of visible light.
The play of mental images.

In the imagery of sub-atomic physics, we tend to see the electron, sometimes, as a point-source of negative charge, as well as a small particle with a minute mass, but, in other circumstances, we tend to see the electron as an electro-magnetic wave-front, orbiting or oscillating around the nucleus of an atom. Perhaps, the imagery is even more complicated, and, we should conceptualise the electron, sometimes, as a distinct particle with mass and charge, while, at other points of its trajectory around the nucleus, it exist more like an ill-defined electro-magnetic resonance, bouncing within the limits of tolerance of its oribiting shell.

When we visualise the electron as a distinct particle with mass and charge, we also visualise it to have a spin around its own axis, but, we do not have, as yet, a clear image of the electron as an electro-magnetic resonance, perhaps, also, with a certain degree of spin, mass and charge. It is likely, however, that this dual imagery of the electron is, primarily, due to our way of looking at, or investigating, these sub-atomic phenomena, and, we are fairly certain, that our own instruments influence the appearance and behaviour of the electron as we are inter-acting with it during our measurements and investigations.

The concepts relating to the electron as a wave-front, orbiting somewhere around the nucleus, are less clear than those of the electron as a point-source of electro-static charge, and, the difficulties in determining the position or energy-content of the electron have led to the idea that there is a fundamental element of inherent uncertainty. If one designs an experiment to determine the mass or energy-content of an orbiting electron, the ability to visualise or determine its position becomes less clear. Vice versa, if one concentrates on the determination of the position of the electron as it orbits in its shell, the ability to determine the energy-content of the orbiting electron, seems to disappear.

This principle or concept of "uncertainty" reflects the idea, that we are looking at two different aspects of a single entity. The investigating techniques make the electron appear, at times, like a discrete particle with charge, mass and spin, while, at other times, it behaves like an electro-magnetic vibration. It all depends upon the type of tools and methods of investigation we use in our scientific inquiries.

The electron may present itself as an orbiting wave-front of electro-magnetic energy, capable of escaping as a series of photons or absorbing a series of photons with the right frequency and energy characteristics, if the existence possibilities for the orbiting electron becomes, either "too rich", or "too poor" in energy-content to remain stable in a specific orbit. In other words; if the existence possibilities favour a smaller orbit, closer to the nucleus, excess energy is given-off in a stream of photons. If the absorption of a fortuitous bit of photonic energy makes it possible for the electron to escape to a larger orbit, further away from the nucleus, such will be the case.

We must visualise the absorption of a suitable electro-magnetic vibration as a vibration that has the capability to amplify the vibrations of the electron in some sort of a "resonance mechanism". It seems, that the frequency and energy characteristics of the orbiting, vibrating electro-magnetic wave-particles, which we call "electrons", are determined by the type of orbit they are traveling, and, the type of orbit is determined, in turn, by the characteristics of the nucleus, which we will discuss later.

It seems logical, therefore, that each atomic element has the capability of absorbing a number of specific photonic wave-lengths. These specific photons can be absorbed by the surrounding electrons, especially, those encircling the outer shells of an atomic element, and, we see, here, the reason, why specific "absorption lines" occur in the spectra of light, after it has passed through a specific atomic structure, especially, when the atoms are widely separated in a gaseous state. Similarly, if orbiting electrons fall back towards an orbit with a lower energy level, "light", or, photons are emitted with a frequency that characterises the presence of a particular atomic element. The absorption or emission of photons with a characteristic wave-length has become an essential instrument in the detection and classification of atomic structures in far-away celestial objects such as "nebulae".

In this discussion, we are primarily interested in exploring the similarities between quanta of energy as they exist in a linear or radiating form, and, as they exist in a rotating or orbital form. We have good reasons to consider all matter to be energy that has been "locked-up" into some sort of orbital form of existence. We hope to show, that the peculiar characteristics of mass and gravity are specifically associated with the orbital energy-forms, but, we will see, that the linear or radiating energy-form is also subjected, at least, to some extent, to the phenomena of mass, momentum and gravitation.

Yet, in spite of the far-reaching and, perhaps, somewhat far-fetched imagery that will unfold itself in these pages, the reader should keep in mind the fact, that these concepts are only mental images which are manipulated and molded with the intention of giving us a sense of understanding. We all realise, or should realise, that these concepts and ideas remain mental images. These images may be persuasive to some of us, but, we know, that we will always have to resist the temptation to equate these images with an absolute and unchangeable reality.

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Chapter 5

Content

The orbiting electron and the flow of electrons in a coiled conductor.
The emergence of a magnetic line of force at right angles to the orbital plane as North and South poles, depending upon the direction of the orbiting electron.
The relationships between the strength of a current in a coiled conductor, and the strength of the magneto-motive force-field, or magnetic field.
Parallel planes of electrons orbiting around a nucleus.
Natural magnetism; the ability of a large number of atoms to orient themselves in such a way that their electron shells are all in the same plane.
The effects of an electron moving across an existing magnetic field.
The tendency of the electron to make a circular movement at right angles to the magnetic force-field.
The imagery of a multi-layered, tubular magnetic force-field; the path of least resistance.
The magnetic line of force, created by the axial spin of the electron and by its rotation around the nucleus.
Possible conceptual links between the electron as a particle, and, as a wave-form.
The essential, unexplained nature of electro-static and magnetic force-fields.
Relating sub-atomic phenomena with large-scale, macroscopic phenomena; electro-motors, transformers and generators, seen with a sub-atomic imagery.
Over-crowded electron shells in a conductor.
The displacement of orbiting electrons by electro-static pressures; the path of least resistance.
The correlation between the imagery of "jumping" electron orbits, and the phenomena of magneto-motive induction.
The alignment of electron shells in a conductor with a "current".
The alignment of magneto-motive lines of force.
A comparison between alignment in a natural magnet and alignment under the influence of an electric current.
Relationships between the degree of alignment and the strength of the electric current through a conductor.

Let us look, for a moment, once again, at the image of an electron encircling an atomic nucleus. Our mental imagery is based upon a variety of conclusions, observations and experiments in the field of electro-technology, which show us, again and again, the curious phenomenon, that electrons, orbiting around a nucleus or flowing through a coiled conductor, will create a magnetic field of force at right angles to the plane enclosed by the encircling electrons. The location of the North and South poles of such an electro-magnetic field depends on the direction of the electron flow. If the electrons reverse their direction of flow, the North and South poles reverse as well. We also note, that the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the strength of the current in a coiled conductor.

The same imagery applies to an electron which is circling around an atom, and, if all the electrons in an atom would orbit in roughly the same plane, as well as the same direction, the magneto-motive lines of force would re-enforce themselves as they run through the nucleus of the atom. If most of the atoms within a fragment of matter would be able to align their magnetic fields, we would have a piece of material that would behave like a natural magnet. If, however, the electron clouds do not encircle the nucleus in a single plane, the magnetic lines of force would have a tendency to cancel each other. Similarly, the many atoms which form the crystalline lattice of a solid piece of matter, may not be able to align themselves in such a way, that the magnetic characteristics re-enforce each other, and the piece of material would then not show any natural magnetic properties.

Just as electrons moving in a circle form a magnetic field or line of force, so will electrons moving across an existing magnetic field experience a tendency to make a circular movement. We may visualise the magnetic field as a multi-layered tubular structure, where numerous concentric tubules with ever larger diameters are layered within each other. There is relatively little resistance for an electron to circle within the boundaries of a tubule, but, to move at right angles to the tubular structures, means, that many tubules, with different magnetic field-strengths, will have to be crossed.

A tubule represents a certain level of magnetic energy, and, to cross a number of magnetic tubules, means, that the electron's energy level has to change. There is, therefore a natural tendency for the magnetic fields of the electrons circling around a nucleus to align themselves, because then, the encircling electrons encounter the least amount of resistance.

There may be other energy consideration that could negate such a harmonisation of electron pathways or magnetic force-fields, and, not all materials become, therefore, natural magnets. This imagery lets us also see, why electrons remain in a particular shell or orbit around an atomic nucleus, which is comparable to a "magnetic tubule". To cross from one shell to another, means, that either energy has to be absorbed or given-off.

We have mentioned, that our mental imagery lets us see the electron as a particle with charge and mass, but, also, with a spin around its own axis, and, it is logical to expect, that such a spin around its own axis will create a magnetic line of force, perpendicular to the plane of orbit. Besides, even, without considering the effects of an axial spin, creating a magneto-motive line of force that is emanating from the poles of this spinning point-source of electro-static charge, we have seen, that an electron can be visualised as an electro-magnetic wave-front that has "condensed" itself around one of its electro-magnetic fields. One of these fields has become "curled-up" into a point-charge, while the other force-field has become a single, stretched-out line.

This small line of magnetic force circulates, or rotates, with the orbiting electron and its electro-static field. This imagery would already suggest a link between the concepts that show us the electron as a particle and those, that let us see the electron as an electro-magnetic wave. The orbiting electron can be seen as an oscillating point-source of charge, as well as an electro-magnetic wave-front, propagating itself in a linear fashion, especially, if we visualise an electron orbit as "bouncing-off" the upper and lower limits of its trajectory, rather than as strictly orbital movements of a satellite encircling a main body of centri-petal attraction.

It is important to realise, that we have not, in any way, explained, why such a magnetic line or field of force exists, nor, have we explained, why an electron has an electro-static field; neither do we have any indication, why the electro-static and magneto-motive force-fields have these peculiar perpendicular relationships. We will see, that these mutually inductive relationships at right angles to each other are crucially important foundations for the perception of our contemporary realities. Nevertheless, with these "given constants", it should now be possible to relate the macroscopic phenomena of electro-static force-fields and the magnetic induction processes. We should be able to use the concepts, which we have obtained from our sub-atomic investigations, to "explain" the technical ability to construct electro-motors, transformers and current-generating machines, or "generators".

If we change the image of a coiled conductor, creating a bundle of concentric tubes with equivalent magnetic lines of force, to the image of a straight conductor, we see, that, now, the magnetic lines of force start to spiral around the linear conductor. However, this image is just as "unexplained" as the happenings within the coiled conductor with its electro-magnet in the center, unless we re-examine, carefully, what is happening within a conductor, whenever a current is flowing through it.

We conveniently visualise the net-result of an electric current as an orderly progression of enormous quantities of electrons flowing along this conductor under the influence of an electro-static pressure or voltage-gradient. In visualising such a procession of static point-sources of electrcitity, (as we often see these electrons), we have a great difficulties understanding, why such a current through a conductor would create this curiously spiraling magneto-motive force.

Let us try to see the procession of the electrons not as an orderly, if slow, flow of billions and billions of electrons, behaving like static point-sources of negative electro-static charges. Rather, let us explore the imagery, where we see the electron clouds of the outer atomic shells to be somewhat over-crowded. The electrons of the outer shells are only loosely bound to the atomic nucleus, and, in response to this voltage or electro-static pressure-gradient, a current starts to form, which displaces a certain number of these loosely bound electrons.

At no time are these electrons static little point-sources of charge, because it is much more accurate to see them as continuously rotating and orbiting around the atomic nuclei, while they range in their behaviour between a discrete, small, negatively charged but spinning particle, and a vague, electro-magnetic vibration of energy, tumbling around itself as it orbits the outer shells of the conductor atoms. Because of relative over-crowding, the dispersive, mutually repulsive effects of too many electrons in the outer shells, creates an energy potential, whereby the electron would leave, rather easily, this over-crowded orbit, if it was given a path of lesser resistance to travel.

This path may be provided, if on one side, a neighbouring atom would be able to absorb a few more electrons, after it had been able to transfer a few of its own electrons to its other neighbour on the other side, etc. We can visualise a chain-reaction of electrons, which are "jumping orbits" from one atomic element to the next, if, at a certain point of the conductor, electrons would be able to escape the over-crowded conductor, and, if there would be a supply of new, loosely bound electrons for the maintenance of the existing electron population in the form of an influx of new electrons at the other end of the conductor.

Let us see, whether the imagery of "jumping electron orbits" will give us a better idea of the appearance of the magneto-motive force-field compared to the picture of a static procession of electro-statically charged points. Let us visualise, in stead, a large number of electrons, which are describing orbits in a plane that is aligned with the direction of the current flow. This plane is, therefore, tangential, or, "in line" with the longitudinal direction of the conductor. At times, these electrons, or, at least some of the electrons, will "jump" to the next, neighbouring atom, but, they continue to rotate or orbit in the same plane.

Eventually, most, if not all, the electrons participating in the current will be orbiting in planes that are tangential to the longitudinal axis of the conductor, and, as a result, the magneto-motive lines of force, running through the center of these orbits, become also aligned, but, at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the conductor. If we compare this with the naturally occurring alignment of the magnetic momenta in magnetic materials, we see, that the magneto-motive lines of force are parallel to the longitudinal axis of the magnet. However, in the conductor with a current, the electron shells are aligned in the longitudinal axis, and the magnetic lines emanate at right angles from all sides of the conductor. Because of their tendency to loop back upon themselves, the magnetic lines of force form a "spiraling circle" around the conductor, at right angles to the plane of the electron shells.

Therefore, this type of magnetic alignment disappears as soons as the current ceases, because there is no other force to keep the electron shells aligned in this way, and, the degree of alignment, or the strength of the magnetic force-field, is directly proportional to the number of parallel electron orbits. This is the same as saying, that it is proportional to the strength of the electric current.

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Chapter 6

Content

The mechanisms of a magnetically induced voltage potential or current.
The alignment of electron shells.
The turning momentum, or "torque", excercised upon electron orbits.
The induced voltage as a function of the rate of change in the magnetic field.
The phase-differential between the currents in the primary and secondary windings of a transformer.
The transformation of voltage and current.
The change from a coiled to a straight conductor; the antenna.
The radiation of an electro-magnetic wave-front.
Resistence in a medium with a rapidly alternating deformation of this medium.
The "stickiness" of the medium.
What is the medium of an electro-magnetic wave-front in space?
The bouncing electron and the dissipation of excess energy during orbital decay.
Carrying away energy with electro-magnetic radiation.
General and special relativity.
The constant and finite speed of light.
The problems of equating mass and inertia; multi-dimensional space and the space-time continuum.
The electro-magnetic medium as a ubiquitous grid of potentials?
The "quantum", as it relates to an orbital shift.
The beauty and the problems associated with our search for symmetry and logical mathematical extra-polations.
The unilateral direction of time, and, the unilateral direction of events; from a higher to a lower energy content.
The need for caution in accepting the reality of mathematical predictions, descriptions and extra-polations.
The oscillating Universe.

We have now some idea, why the macroscopic phenomenon of an electro-magnetic field is a logical result of the synchronisation and alignment of innumerable electron orbits, and, we should try to visualise, now, the reverse phenomenon. We know, that a waxing and waning electro-magnetic field is able to induce a similarly waxing and waning voltage and current in another conductor, which has been placed, concentrically, in such a fluctuating magnetic field. Why is this? What is the reason that such a current can be "transferred" from one conductor to the next, even, without any physical connection?

If we apply an alternating current through a coiled conductor, the magnetic alignment of the electron shells will also fluctuate, and reverse, as the current-flow reverses. As the degree of alignment is proportional to the current flow, the maximal alignment will occur at the greatest rates of flow. As the voltage soars to its maximum, the current will reach a peak, while the current will be zero as the voltage goes through its zero point, only to reverse and reach again a maximum as the voltage reaches its opposite peak-level. These are the happenings within the primary windings of a transformer.

What happens to a coiled conductor which has been placed in this fluctuating electro-magnetic field? As the magnetic field increases in strength, there will also be an increasing tendency for the electron shells of the secondary windings or conductor to align themselves, and, this "turning" of the electron orbits in order to align themselves, will create a potential difference between the two ends of the conductor, because the electrons are "jostling" each other as they are trying to align themselves. Electrons, which would have an equal tendency to drift to the left or the right, are now forced into one direction or another, depending on the way the electron shells are trying to align themselves to the existing but changing magnetic fields of force.

The "torque" excercised upon these electron shells will be maximal when there is the greatest discrepancy between alignment and magnetic field. Therefore, the induced voltage within the second conductor, or secondary windings, suspended within a changing magnetic field, will be maximal at the greatest rate of change of this magnetic field. As the field reaches its maximum magnetic strength at the time of the greatest current flow through the primary windings of a transformer, the electron shells are aligned, and little torque is exerted upon these shells. Rest and tranquility return to the secondary windings, until the electro-magnetic field starts to change again.

As it begins the reverse, the greatest torque upon the electron shells, and the greatest displacement force upon the wandering electrons in the secondary winding occurs at the greatest rate of change of the magnetic flux. The greatest rate of change in the magnetic field occurs as the voltage-change is maximal in the primary windings, and, this happens as the voltage sweeps through the null-axis. At this time, the voltage potential in the secondary windings will be maximal because of the maximum torque exerted on the aligning electron shells, but then, the torque starts to return rapidly to the null-axis, as the magnetic field reaches, again, its greatest strength, but its smallest rate of change.

The voltage and current in the secondary winding are, therefore, "out of phase", compared to the primary windings, but the frequency of the changes is similar in both. The voltage-potential developed in the secondary winding by this "torque" upon the electron shells, is proportional to the number of electron shells available, and, if we consider uniform conducting materials, we are justified to say that the voltage induced is proportional to the length of the secondary winding.

If, e.g., the length of the secondary conductor is three times as long as the primary winding, we may be justified to expect a voltage-difference that is three times as great as exists in the primary winding, but, the strength of the magnetic field from the first winding must be sufficient to align all the electron shells in the secondary winding. Since there are three times as many shells to align as in the primary winding, the strength of the magnetic field would be insufficient, unless we postulate that the magnetic field is enforced by the strength of the current in the primary winding. The current in the pimary winding has to be three times as strong as in the secondary winding, if the magnetic field is going to be strong enough to move or align all the electron shells in the secondary conductor. Now, we have some idea, how a changing electro-magnetic field is capable of moving electrons within a suitably placed conductor, even, without a direct physical connection.

In stead of a coiled conductor, let us now apply an alternating current into a straight piece of wire. We can not force a large number of electrons into this straight piece, but, by coupling this wire to a suitable reservoir, or "capacitor", and, with the help of an oscillator, we are able to set-up a quick oscillation into, and out of, this straight piece of wire, which we call an "antenna".

We have discussed, how a current into a straight conductor causes a spiralling magnetic field around his wire. If we visualise a rapidly alternating current going back and forth, into and out of this wire, we see a rapidly reversing magnetic field propagating itself as an electro-magnetic wave-front in all directions from this piece of straight wire. This is the principle of a radio-wave, or an undulating electro-magnetic wave-front.

Let us ask the question, how we can imagine this antenna to transmit energy, or radiate energy, into the surrounding atmosphere. Obviously, this energy has to be supplied by driving, forcefully, the oscillating circuit, but the question is, why there would be a significant resistance and a significant radiation of energy, as we create this undulating electro-magnetic wave-front, which is, in our model, spreading into all directions?

If we create a wave disturbance in a solid, liquid or gaseous medium, we know, that it takes energy to deform this medium, because of its cohesion, or "stickiness", and, we know, that the properties of this medium determine the speed of propagation. The electro-magnetic wave behaves exactly in the same way, in spite of the fact, that we do not know what, if any, medium is operative in the propagation of the electro-magnetic wave-disturbance.

We visualise, that the electro-magnetic lines of force "resist" a deformity, in particular, when the oscillating or vibrating deformity occurs rapidly. Yet, even at relatively slow oscillation rates, such as we see in the long radio-waves, enormous amounts of energy can be dissipated, if the electro-magnetic disturbance takes place on a very large, e.g., galactic scale.

Let us, now, look at the imagery of the electron bouncing back and forth between two orbits, and, we see, how similar this image is to that of the radiating antenna. The magnetic line of force emanating through the axis of the spinning electron, is whipped up and down, just like a long rope can be shaken quickly up and down, after which we see a rapidly spreading wave, traveling to either end of the rope. This rapidly traveling wave has the ability to move, shake or to be absorbed by many other energy-forms, be they electrons, larger complexes of matter-energy, such as atoms or molecules, or, other radiating energy forms. The fact, that these traveling electro-magnetic waves have the potential to increase the energy-content of a suitable target, closes the argument for the reasons, why these electro-magnetic radiations carry-away energy with them, in spite of the fact, that it remains difficult to visualise, precisely, how this energy is carried along.

The constancy of the speed of propagation of an electro-magnetic wave-front, (at least, in the "medium" of empty space), has become a corner-stone for the concepts of special and general relativity. The ideas of special relativity have been very useful for our understanding and manipulation of many phenomena, ranging from particle-physics and the application of these principles in huge instruments used to accelerate particles, to the interpretation of natural phenomena on a cosmic scale.

In many ways, the concept of a finite speed of light and the ideas of shifting reference-systems have clarified many details of physical behaviour. Yet, the ideas to equate the concepts of inertia, mass and gravity, have not been as successful, because the imagery has become rather strained, as we wrestle with the imagery of multi-dimensional forms of space, or, a curved "space-time continuum", where gravity is "explained away" in the form of "indentations", which are deformities of the space-time continuum, caused by the presence of matter.

The acceptance of the fact, that the speed of light is finite and constant, has greatly refined our perceptions of physical phenomena, and, it has brought to light tacit assumptions which turned-out to be erroneous. These concepts and ideas have greatly influenced our concepts about time and space. We will discuss these aspects more in detail, later in this essay. We would like to come back, here, upon the somewhat intuitive idea, that the finite speed of light, or, the speed of propagation of any electro-magnetic wave-front, as well as the implied "elasticity", or resistance to deformation, suggests some form of a "medium", even, if the medium may turn-out to be nothing more than the presence of a ubiquitous grid of electro-magnetic potentials, fluctuating randomly in space.

The idea of an electro-magnetic quantum relates to the fact, that electrons, orbiting in definite shells or layers, have to have a step-wise change in their energy levels, if they shift from one orbit to another. This step-wise transmission of energy became apparent to investigators examining the phenomena of electro-static and electro-magnetic force-fields. The quantitization of electric energy became the fore-runner of an explanation of electric phenomena at an atomic or sub-atomic level. This does not mean, however, that all energy phenomena have to be quantitized in this manner, because some forms of energy-transfer do not seem to depend upon shifting electron orbits.

I have the impression, that we have squeezed the concepts of time, space-time, symmetry and energy out of a comfortable and plausible imagery as a result of our enthousiasm and eagerness to adopt the beauty and simplicity of relativistic concepts and mathematical manipulations. It is true, that the concepts of symmetry, as well as the bilaterality of the spatial dimensions, have given us a great understanding of space, and, the concepts of symmetry have helped us to look for mirror images of existing structures. Yet, by considering time to be a dimension just like the others, we create many difficulties. By making time reversible, as a concept, we violate, completely, the idea, that events or reactions take place, just because they are able to make use of an energy-gradient. They flow from a higher to a lower level of energy. This is the cardinal feature that sets time apart as a different concept from the other dimensions of space.

Nowhere in nature do we see the phenomenon that an event occurs against an energy-gradient, unless this event is fueled by another, even larger energy-gradient. Nowhere does water flow up-hill, and, nowhere does an object fall-away from the earth. In order to retain a realistic and useful imagery of the relationships of existence, as they seem to unfold in their intricate associations between orbital and radiant energy-forms, we have to reject any line of tought that is based, primarily, on mathematical extra-polations of possibilities, or, on an intuitive search for symmetries that may not have a possibility to exist. The possibility to manipulate mathematically a reality with "n" dimensions, does not necessarily mean, that such an ability conforms to an existing reality.

It is certainly tempting to see time as a fourth dimension of space, because we seem, initially, to make great conceptual progress with such an imagery, but, we forget, that the concept of time embodies the progression of events and happenings, and, we forget, that the flow of events is unilateral; from higher to lower energy-levels.

It is true, that, an event, flowing from a higher to a lower energy-level, only "dissipates" part of the locally available energy-gradient in a random fashion, and, this energy is not lost from the totality of the energy equation. On a cosmic scale, therefore, all phenomena that appear to "use" or dissipate energy, may be nothing more than temporary rivulets for an energy-flow, made possible by locally existing peculiarities and conditions of non-homogeneity, while the entire cosmos only oscillates between the equivalents of radiating and orbiting energy forms.

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Chapter 7

Content

Energy-flow, and the fueling of reactions that absorb energy.
The sun and its photons.
Energy requirements and chemical reactions.
Photo-synthesis and the animals; predation.
Homo Sapiens, and his abilities to harnass energy.
The industrial development.
Solar energy as the source of most energy-forms that can be consumed by man.
Increasing complexity of life-forms, and the apparent violation of thermo-dynamic principles.
The life-form as a channel to dissipate captured solar energy.
The problem of "stability".
Electro-magnetic properties as the fundamental corner-stone of all existence.
No absolute stability of either the radiant or the orbital energy-forms.
The oscillating Universe.

The presence of an energy-flow, (always from a higher to a lower level), may serve as a source of energy to carry-out "constructive" reactions, where the end-product has a higher energy-content than the sum of the components at the beginning, before the components were assembled into a more complex structure. As an example of such a channeled or guided event with the build-up of an energy-content, we see the processes of photo-synthesis, which are fueled by the energy-flow from the sun. Sunlight is captured in the form of high-energy electron bonds, where specialised electron-shells are capable of absorbing the photonic energies from the sun, and transfer this energy, again, to other substances, fueling chemical or bio-chemical reaction-patterns.

As an overall generalisation, we may confidently state, that chemical reactions can only take place, if the energy requirements of these reactions have been satisfied. In the case of photo-synthesis, as well as other biological reactions that involve a build-up of energy and matter, the energy comes from the sun. This energy is used, either directly, such as in the process of photo-synthesis, or, indirectly, when other organic substances are broken-down in order to drive the biochemical reactions which the organism requires.

As a member of the animal kingdom, man can not photo-synthesise, and, he has to rely upon the break-down of organic materials, ingested as food, in order to fuel the biochemical reactions of his body. As a member of the intelligent species Homo Sapiens, man has learned, with great effectiveness, to harnass a variety of energy-sources in order to carry-out the work necessary to survive and live in comfort.

Initially, man learned to ease the burdens of his labours by creating and inventing tools and devices to make his tasks easier, but, since the beginning of the industrialisation of human societies, man has learned to design large and complicated machinery to carry-out all the heavy work. The onset of the era of mechanisation meant, that man started to use the energy that was available around him rather than his own muscle-power, such as the burning of wood, coal, or peat, including a variety of petro-chemicals, as well as the natural radio-active decay of uranium.

Man has learned to harnass the energy of a gravitational gradient in hydro-electric power, or, the use of a flow of water or the winds in a variety of "mills", but, it is not difficult to trace all these energy-resources, ultimately, back to solar energy. Wood, coal and oil are, after all, organic products. They represent the remains of plant-life, and the energy contained in them has been captured by the processes of photo-synthesis. In hydro-power and wind-power, we see, how solar energy has been absorbed by inorganic materials, such as water and air, as they were heated and evaporated by the sun's energy.

This constant stream of energy from the sun determines, to a large extent, the temperature of the atmosphere and the fluidity of water, the climate, as well as the existence of clouds, winds and rains. It also made the evolution of life possible, including the evolution of multi-cellular existence, where organisms formed ever more complex and efficient channels for the dissipation of a reservoir of captured solar energy. This is an imagery we have frequently elaborated before. As we have discussed before, this imagery only appears to violate thermo-dynamic considerations, if one forgets to look at the energy-pressures and energy-gradients created by the capture of solar energy. The capture of solar energy by the living organism takes place, primarily, in the form of a process of electron-excitation, which makes specific and discrete energy-transfers possible on account of the formation of high-energy electron bonds. These, in turn, fuel all sorts of biochemical complexes and reaction-patterns.

However, all this, is, really, an aside. It is an interlude in our discussions, because our focus of concern, here, is on an understanding of the nuclear and electronic processes that take place at an atomic level. Let us look, once again, at the processes that take place, when the orbit of an electron becomes unstable. A lowering of the energy-level of the electron makes it possible for the electron to jump from an outer shell into an orbit closer to the nucleus. It is obvious, that this can only happen, if the excess energy, which the electron still carries, even after the orbit has become unstable, is transferred to some other kind of existence, and, we have good evidence to see the emission of an electro-magnetic wave-form or photon as such a means to carry-off this excess energy of the electron, as it falls back into a lower orbit.

We have described, therefore, some kind of an oscillation of this electron, until enough energy has been dissipated in order for the electron to "rest" quietly in its new but closer orbit. This oscillation is propagated as an electro-magnetic vibration. This vibration often exists as a rather discrete burst of fluctuations of the interlocked electro-magnetic force-fields. We call such an entity a "photon", and its existence seems only to be stable at the very high speed of propagation which is such an essential characteristic of the electro-magnetic wave-form.

The question we want to ask, here, is related to the reasons, why stability for a photon depends upon this propagation speed, as well as a certain level of energy, or "quantum". We may cut-short a lengthy and probably fruitless and speculative search by abandoning the attempt to formulate a precise answer to these questions, because we realise, now, more clearly, that it becomes necessary to accept the characteristics of the electro-magnetic wave-front as the fundamental corner-stone upon which all conceptual explanations of all forms of existence have been based.

It will be helpful to accept, as a matter of fact, that the speed of light gives a certain stability to an electro-magnetic disturbance, just as the orbiting or rotational energy-complex finds a measure of stability as a particle of matter. However, neither the radiant form of energy, nor the orbiting or "matter form" of energy are totally and eternally stable. We come increasingly to the conclusion, that these two very different appearances of matter-energy constitute, together, an oscillating system, where one form of energy will sooner or later transform itself into the other form.

We know, now, how the massive and gigantic gravitational contraction of stars, or, even, entire galaxies, eventually, returns all matter back into a form of radiant energy, and, we know, also, how this radiant energy is, eventually, transformed or absorbed in a myriad of ways, as it starts, once again, the slow build-up to an existence as "matter".

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Chapter 8

Content

Stability is characterised by speed and spin.
The deterioration of the stability of a radiant quantum of energy.
The electro-magnetic grid.
Inter-actions between grid and quantum; fractional losses and harmonic boosts.
The process of inter-locking.
The more familiar transition of orbital energy into radiant energy.
What are the mechanisms of gravity?

As the electro-magnetic vibration or oscillation speeds away at the speed of light, (at least, as seen in our system of reference of matter or orbital energy-forms), we get the firm impression, that the photon requires such a speed in order to find a measure of stability, and to prevent a decay into elementary, orbiting energy-forms, or "particles". If we recall the idea, that, elementary particles are made-up of electro-magnetic quanta that have been locked into a rotational or orbital form, we may appreciate the reasons, why the open-ended, non-locking form of radiant energy requires an enormous velocity for its existence. However, with the speeding-away of such energy quanta into all directions, we have to visualise, also, that, sooner or later, such quanta may revert back to an orbital form of existence, creating elementary particles, here and there, over an enormously widely scattered volume of space.

Why would such a conversion to orbital energy-forms take place? It may be, that there is a slight loss of energy as the quantum exists over a period of time, speeding along through space, and, it is likely, that interference from the vibrations of other quanta which are criss-crossing space everywhere, eventually, distorts the pattern of vibrations to such an extent, that its existence becomes unstable, and, eventually, untenable. We may, even, visualise a unified concept of these ideas by postulating that all the electro-magnetic wave-fronts are traveling through a volume of space that is simultaneously occupied by other wave-fronts.

We may picture our observable Universe as being traversed, at all points, by some sort of an electro-magnetic disturbance, even, if the density of such a composite disturbance is completely unknown, and seemingly insignificant. However, if interference with a quantum takes place continuously, we may visualise a gradual loss of energy, given-off as random influences to other existing vibrational states, even, if, on occasion, the synchrony or harmony of a certain vibrational encounter will impart energy to our traveling quantum, rather than take energy away from it.

The occurrence of such a "harmonic boost" to the vibrations of a quantum, must occur less frequently than the very gradual loss of energy, which takes place in encounters with other, randomly distributed electro-magnetic disturbances along its path of travel. While energy is constantly transferred back and forth between interfering electro-magnetic wave-fronts, only very rarely, will the absorption of an interference be "fortuitous" and actually support the configuration of an existing wave-front.

We visualise, purely speculatively of course, that, at a certain point, such a photonic quantum decays, or transform itself into an oscillating, orbital form. Perhaps, it may interlock with another quantum that is similarly becoming unstable in its radiating or open-ended form of existence. This imagery of elementary particle-formation does not necessarily depend upon a photon-antiphoton collision in order to explain the "decay" into elementary particles, but, it may well be, that, only much more dramatic "annihilations", or collisions, between photons and anti-photons are able to give rise to more stable forms of elementary particles.

Whatever the exact mechanisms are, it seems very likely, that the overall concept, (where radiating energy reverts back and forth into widely spaced elementary particles), is as valid a concept as our more familiar transformations of orbiting energy-patterns into high-energy radiation. The latter takes place, when atomic nuclei and their neucleons break-up in a variety of nuclear transformations.

We see these nuclear transformations take place within stars, such as our sun, as well as in the horrifying nuclear devices of mankind. The only natural force that makes the reversion of the orbital form into the radiant form of energy possible, is the force of gravity, which seems to be absolutely negligeable on an atomic level, but, becomes totally unimaginable and overwhelming in its massive powers, when observed at the level of giant stars or galactic concentrations of matter particles.

Obviously, the force of gravity plays a crucial role in the balance between the various forms of energy, allowing the entire system of energy to oscillate between orbital and radiant forms of existence. It would, therefore, be quite useful, if we could grasp, somehow, the mechanisms that show us how this potential energy of gravity plays its role in the equation between radiant and orbital energy. Without a clear understanding of the nature of gravity, we seem to miss-out on some of the crucial factors that keep this momentum going; where we see radiant and orbital energy transform into each other.

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Chapter 9

Content

Speculations about the mechanisms of gravitational attraction.
The formation of a "hypothetical" elementary particle.
The "Brownian movements" of an elementary particle in space.
The short life-span of such a particle in a wild "sea" of electro-magnetic disturbances.
Particles with opposite spin; the mechanisms of collision and mutual annihilation.
The absorption of vibrational energy by spinning particles.
The vortex around an orbital matter-particle.
The fusion of vortices spinning in the same direction.
The tendency for these vortices to cluster together.
A foundation for the forces of gravitational attraction?

I do not pretend, for one moment, that these speculative images will turn-out to be of any use as a foundation for the perception of our realities. We are exploring, here, possibilities for visualising a plausible train of events, and, we hope, of course, that the imagery becomes coherent enough to let us test the various ideas against experimental evidence, whenever this evidence becomes available.

We are considering the idea of a gigantic "sea" of electro-magnetic disturbances. This sea occupies what we call "empty space", and, we are considering the possibility, that the slowly increasing instability of an electro-magnetic vibration in its radiant form is due to a slow and nearly imperceptible inter-action with this fluctuating electro-magnetic field of surrounding disturbances. The radiant quantum may, then, suddenly, inter-lock, either, by curling-up around one of its own force-fields, or, by inter-locking with another quantum, forming simple rotating or orbiting forms of energy-existence. These orbiting forms of energy are characterised by the fact, that their existence does not depend, anymore, on a "linear" or progressive momentum. Stability is now found in the spinning of this energy complex around its own axis, or, around a common axis when inter-locked with other orbiting forms of energy.

We should emphasise, once again, that we are not trying to equate these ideas with any one particular elementary particle we know of, or have given a name to on the basis of experimental evidence. This hypothetical particle is the simplest and earliest form of a rotational, orbital energy-form, and, it remains to be seen, whether or not these elementary forms can, eventually, be recognised in the concepts of our contemporary scientific imagery of electrons and sub-atomic particles.

Let us explore the potential consequences of such a transformation of radiant energy-quanta into orbiting forms of energy. It is obvious, that the quantum, photon, or "wave-packet" has lost its propulsive momentum in relation to the source of the vibrational disturbance, and, consequently, it "floats" in a sea of vibrational disturbances. These electro-magnetic disturbances come from all sides and agitate this elementary particle, tossing it here and there, just like the "Brownian movements" of molecules in a watery suspension, which occur as a result of thermal agitation. Occasionally, such vibrational disturbances may impart the newly formed elementary particle in empty space with, a small additional fraction of energy, increasing its spin or wobble. At other times, it may be such a violent inter-action, that its orbital form is broken-up again, and the elementary particle "decays" into some sort of electro-magnetic vibration.

We have to consider, also, the fact, that the direction of the rotation of a particle is a chance-happening, and, we know that other, similar particles may be formed with a spin in the opposite direction. A collision between such particles with an opposite spin could result in a mutual destabilisation, or "annihilation", and, presumably, this would lead, once again, to a decay into a vibrational disturbance as photons, or, it may lead to a decay into other types of rotational or orbiting energy-forms, as we see in the creation of elementary particles from an electron-positron collision.

However, let us consider the situation, when a few, similarly spinning orbital energy-forms are floating together in this sea of electro-magnetic vibrations or disturbances. Each of them will be able to absorb, to some extent, some of the vibrational energy coming at them, and, they may also contribute to vibrational disturbance-patterns, when they return, slowly, to "normal" levels, after they have been agitated to the point, that they were in danger of breaking-up.

We may see the existence of our elementary particle as a "vortex of rotation" within this sea of electro-magnetic disturbances, and, its ability to absorb some additional energies may create, indeed, a vortex with an energy-gradient, when the particle acts like a sponge as it "sucks-up" or draws some of the vibrational disturbances towards itself. If two or more particles come close enough to feel the influence of each other's vortex, and, if these vortices are rotating in the same direction, they will have a tendency to fuse. The vibrational pressures, or energy-gradient, from the surrounding electro-magnetic grid upon the existence of these elementary rotating particles, becomes uneven, since the pressure on the side of the other particle's vortex is less, and we see, therefore, a tendency for all elementary particles with a similar direction of spin, to aggregate together.

The tendency to drift-together is a result of the tendency for these funnels, or vortices, to absorb suitable vibrations from the surrounding sea of electro-magnetic disturbances. These are vibrations that are able to sustain or support the orbital momentum of these elementary matter-particles. It may seem incredible, that this subtle pressure of the sea of surrounding vibrations, (energy existing in radiant forms), would be sufficient to explain the crushing gravitational force-fields of the super-dense bodies of matter, which we see evolve in the Universe. The idea requires, therefore, further exploration in order to relate the gravitational pressures, not only, to the volume of the vortex, but, also, to the density of matter-energy, and, we should make it plausible, that the existence of an electro-magnetic "energy-pressure" from the "sea of space", (or the electro-magnetic grid), may, indeed, be a sufficient source of energy to explain the phenomenon of gravitation in all its aspects.

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Chapter 10

Content

The fusion of vortices of elementary particles or spinning di-poles.
A rapid exploration of numerous possibilities of existence in this vast, primordial sea of inorganic material evolution.
Stability at the level of the hydrogen atom.
The evolution of heavier elements in the nuclear furnace of large stars.
The preponderance of one form of matter or another.
The predilection of materialisation in a particular direction of spin.
The separation of matter and anti-matter.
The suppression of the opposite form of matter-energy.
Anti-matter, hidden inside nucleons or nuclei, and transiently existing during nuclear disintegration processes.
Re-examining the conditions necessary for elementary particle formation.
Re-examining our ideas about the nature of gravity.
The transient existence of a monster-wave or "freak" wave.
Rapid fusion of vortices and elementary particles; a search for stability.
Stability and reversibility; common examples.
The assumption of complete stability for "normally" existing matter.
The strange suggestion, that matter may require a constant source of energy in order to remain stable in its existence.

If the two vortices of two elementary di-poles or rotatory particles fuse, there should be a tendency for these two particles to encircle each other, and, we may assume, that, with the capture of additional bits of energy from the surrounding sea or grid of vibrational disturbances, a large and complex series of existence possibilities is quickly explored in this enormously large and vast expanse of a "primordial sea" for inorganic material and vibrational evolution. We have good evidence to believe, that this process of exploring existence possibilities for elementary particles, ends, somewhere, with the stability of a hydrogen atom, since the existence of the more complex, heavier atoms seems to require the nuclear furnace of the interior of a star, before the heavier atomic elements find a possibility to come into being.

The formation of mirror-images, or anti-particles, is going-on at the same time, but, eventually, a preponderance of one form or the other should occur in a particular region, since an equal number of mirror particles would only lead to mutual annihilation, and would prevent a build-up of elementary particles. Probably, the predominance of a certain vortex-rotation creates an influence or "pre-dilection" for the materialisation of elementary particles in a prevailing mode of rotation. Areas of matter and anti-matter would, therefore, tend to become ever further separated from each other, and, it may well be, that one, or the other, becomes completely suppressed, existing, only, within the interior of nucleons or manifesting themselves, briefly, during the decay of a disintegrating nucleus.

Let us explore, further, the probablility, that, vortex-fusion and the influence of the pressure-gradient of the electro-magnetic grid, are sufficient to explain the nature of gravity, mass and inertia. Let us explore, once again, the ideas that lie behind the formation of a primordial, elementary matter-particle, which represents the first change from an open-ended to a closed or rotatory existence of a quantum of energy. We have hinted, that such a formation depends on certain fortuitous energy relationships, which have to exist at the point, where such an elementary particle finds a possibility to exist.

It is difficult to visualise, at this time, exactly, what circumstances have to exist, in order to make such a transition possible, but, we may speculate, that a certain resonance of vibrations has to be present at a point of creation, where the interference-pattern has already the beginnings of a rotatory component as a result of the inter-action of several electro-magnetic wave-fronts coming from several directions. We have seen, that it is reasonable to visualise, how each and every point in space contains such an interference-pattern, where numerous eletro-magnetic waves are weaving a continuously varying pattern of undulations and fluctuations in the fabric of the electro-magnetic potential.

At a certain point, then, the circumstances may happen to favour the creation of a rotatory existence of a packet, or quantum, of vibrational electro-magnetic energy, not unlike the fortuitous, simultaneous concurrence of two or more wave-patterns of the sea may, suddenly, create a monstrous, breaking wave, whose behaviour is entirely out of proportion and out of line with the behaviour of the waves surrounding such a "freak" or giant wave.

However, the conditions that make such a monster-wave possible, are transient, since the synchrony or harmonisation of wave-trains exists only momentarily. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume, that the existence of the first tentative formations of such a rotatory oscillation of an energy-quantum, is also a short-lived event, unless we assume, that the rotatory particle finds, quickly, a sufficient level of stability of existence. Then, it will be able to persist, even, after the conditions for its creation have disappeared. Perhaps, a certain density of elementary particles is necessary for a persistent existence, or, these elementary particles may have to fuse, quickly, into more stable complexes in order to prolong their existence. We will explore a variety of possibilities.

We can certainly visualise the occurrence of a sudden transformation into a new kind of existence with a great inherent stability. We see such sudden transformations everywhere, e.g., in the crystallisation of solids from a super-saturated solution, whenever temperature and saturation levels reach favourable conditions. However, frequently, there is a certain reversibility inherent in any transformation. There is a "dynamic equilibrium", which depends for its form or balance-point on the resultant of opposing vectors; forces with opposing directions and opposing energy-gradients.

Our ideas about the existence of the natural elements, (the various atomic structures of the naturally occurring terrestial elements), have always assumed, that there is a remarkable degree of rigidity, or stability, of the atomic structure. We assume, that, atomic elements or structures can not change under "normal" conditions on earth, (except in the case of a few, labile or radio-active elements, which were labile or unstable from the moment they were born), and, we assume, that these normally stable elements require the temperatures and pressures that exist in the interior of large stars, before the atomic structure of these elements can change or disintegrate. It seems indeed to us, observers on earth, that the atomic elements are completely stable, and, that this whole complex constellation of orbiting electrons, spinning nucleons, oscillating protons, neutrons and mesons, performs its rythmic oscillations with invariable regularity.

However, is this indeed the case, or, is it possible, that the existence of matter is not a closed system of stability, but requires, actually, a constant influx of energy in order to maintain its existence? These suggestions will sound so strange, so preposterous, so wildly speculative, that many of us will not even consider these suggestions for one moment, and will reject them out of hand as pseudo-scientific witch-craft.

.......

Chapter 11

Content

The origins of ideas and concepts.
Another look at the electro-magnetic grid.
Complex interference-patterns and randomly fluctuating energy potentials.
A point-source of existence "at rest".
The surfing boat on a seemingly stationary mound of water.
The head-on collision with waves coming from opposite directions.
The constancy of the net-capture of energy.
A refinement of the imagery by seeing waves coming from all directions.
Preferential energy-capture from certain directions.
Energy-capture as an expression of the intrinsic energy-capturing capabilities of the point-source of existence, times the squared velocity of light.
The equation between the concept of "energy-capture" and those of mass and inertia.
The energy- or tension-gradients between the electro-magnetic grid and the point-source of existence.
Elementary particles, seen as energy quanta that are not able to respond, at the speed of light, to the variations of the energy-potentials of the electro-magnetic grid.
The "excitation" of an elementary particle by the absorption of resonant energy; violent movements on the electro-magnetic sea, and a possible "break-up".
Continuous stress between particle and grid, as the particle is unable to follow the fluctuations with perfect and effortless fidelity.
Slowness of response to these fluctuations as a basis for the concept of "inertia".
The relief of internal stress by the slow dissipation of surplus energy.

Let us look at the ideas we introduced in the previous chapter, and, let us trace the origins of these concepts, because, without kowing why such an idea arose in the first place, we will not really be able to judge, with any degree of accuracy, the reasonableness or rationality of such an idea. Our rejection will, then, be only an intuitive reaction against strangeness and unfamiliarity, rather than a rejection based upon a sound comprehension and a rational refutation.

What, then, gave us the idea, that, perhaps, the material system, the orbiting energy-form, would not be a closed and static system; an existence of immutable stability, as long as certain strong thresholds to change and transmutation were not transgressed by the overwhelming levels of thermal agitation and gravitational compression?

Perhaps, we should look, once more, at our hypothetical force-field, spread-out through space, where the criss-crossing electro-magnetic waves, coming from all directions, establish an ever-varying source of potential energy at anyone particular point in space. There exists, indeed, a "grid" with a complex interference-pattern, and, it is composed of "passing" wave-trains with varying levels of energy.

If we visualise a point in space, any point, we may chose one that is, let us say, "at rest" in relation to our own sphere of observation or reference system. We see, that, from all directions, in a random fashion, electro-magnetic waves with varying intensities and frequencies will pass through this point, and, if such a point has the ability to respond to all the electro-magnetic variations in field-strength occurring at this particular point, it would be seen to exhibit all kinds of irregular motions, in all directions. It would move back and forth, as well as up and down. The speed and range of its movements would be determined by its capabilities to respond to the fluctuating field-strength, which depends, in turn, upon its characteristics of mass or inertia.

Let us now consider, whether or not the same holds true, if our point-source of existence with energy-capturing or reacting capabilities, is not "at rest"; if it is not stationary in relation to anyone particular system of reference. Our point-existence, or, the entity with a measure of energy-capturing capabilities could be swept-along one way or another, but the maximum it could be swept away, would be the speed of an electro-magnetic wave-front. If it is swept along with a wave-train, the variations of this particular wave-pattern will come to rest, just as a boat, surfing on top of a wave, seems to be resting on a stationary mound of water.

However, any interference felt from a wave traveling in the oposite direction will now have an energy-content that is the product of its own speed in one direction, and the speed of the wave-front coming from the opposite direction. This would be experienced by our point-source of existence as a frequency of vibrations that is twice as fast and energetic as the frequency would be experienced, if our point-source of existenc would be "at rest". However, if "at rest", it would be subjected, not only, to the "head-on" wave, (which would, then, be at half its frequency or energy-content), but, the wave it was previous traveling with, would now also contribute its own frequency and energy.

The net-capture of energy would not change, and, we may argue that the capture of energy by a sensitive point-source of existence would always be the product of two wave-fronts, coming-in from opposite directions, regardless of their speed in relation to the elementary, energy-capturing particle. We can refine this picture by considering all the waves coming at or though our point-source of existence, from all other directions, and, we could summate all these energies in a vector-diagram of force-fields, but, it would be obvious, that the waves coming from different angles, could be considered as waves with a component in either of the two primary directions we have discussed.

Perhaps, the point-source of existence has a predilection for the absorption or the interference of energy coming from a certain direction. In any case, it seems reasonable to say, that, the energy a point-source of existence can capture, depends, first of all, on its inherent energy-capturing capabilities, multiplied by the product of the velocity of two head-on wave-fronts; the wave-velocity squared. We would then get a statement like this. The energy-content, captured from the grid, depends on the energy-capturing ability of the particle, times the squared velocity or the speed of light. Let us see, whether we can equate the energy-capturing capabilities of a system with the concepts of its mass or inertia, because, then, we could summarise the statement as; e = mc2.

If we visualise a point-source of existence without mass or inertia, it would be swept away by a force-field at the speed of light with an instantaneous acceleration, until it would encounter a force-field or potential in a different direction. We have to visualise some sort of a completely random movement, where the individual trajectories occur at the speed of light. In following this point-source, we would have to say, that the point always "gives-way" at the maximum speed possible; the speed of light, and, actually, we would not be able to measure any form of force or gradient of force through such a point-source of existence. We would not be able to detect any force acting on it at all, and, we would have the impression, traveling with our point of existence, (and not subject to the sense of acceleration which is in itself a measure of inertia), that it is perfectly at rest; not subject to any force at all.

However, if we visualise our point-existence to be a spinning elementary particle, a rotatory or oscillating quantum of energy, we know, from our previous discussions, that such a rotatory quantum of energy does not move, anymore, with the speed of light. Energy is now locked into a rotatory existence, and, we have to imagine a complex, quickly varying electro-magnetic force-field, which is related to the rotatory movement of energy quanta. These rotating quanta represent a form of internal stress, and they would "fly apart", if the locking mechanisms would disappear.

We do not pretent that we understand, exactly, how such locking mechanisms work, because there are probably a variety of mechanisms at work, but, we may safely assume, from all our observations on particle physics, that such locking mechanisms do indeed exist.

If a passing electro-magnetic disturbance happens to enlarge, through a process of resonance, the energy-content of such an orbiting system, an extra strain will be placed on the locking mechanisms, and, they may break. The extra strain from the absorbed energy may, however, be insufficient to break the bonds entirely, and the whole complex of this rotating elementary particle will then be swept hither and thither, but, with a certain "inertia"; with a speed less than that of light, and, we would be able to measure, continuously, a form of stress acting upon this particle as it is being tossed around in a sea of electro-magnetic disturbances.

This, however, represents our concept of inertia, and, therefore, the moment energy-quanta lock themselves into a rotatory existence, they begin to exhibit inertia, and, they are subjected to a stress upon their existence produced by fluctuating grid-potentials. This stress agitates the spinning particle of locked-up matter-energy, and, this stress or agitation has to be "relieved". It is relieved by giving-off oscillations or electro-magnetic vibrations which carry-off the excess energy. This process is quite similar, if not identical, to the dissipation of heat in the form of electro-magnetic wave-fronts, whenever molecules and atoms have been agitated by thermal, electro-magnetic disturbances.

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Chapter 12

Content

The absorption of "exciting" or resonant energies by an elementary particle.
The slow dissipation of electro-magnetic energy as the particle returns to a "normal state".
The concept of "friction" between the electro-magnetic field of an elementary particle and the surrounding electro-magnetic grid.
The tendency for orbital frequencies to "slow-down".
Questioning the "closed" concept of material existence.
Theoretical possibilities for "instability" due to a loss of orbital momentum; no evidence for this concept in contemporary reality.
Quanta; necessary in the absorption and emission of energy by electrons, but, perhaps, not necessary in the fractional, random dissipation processes such as heat-transfer.
The phenomena of temperature and heat-loss.
The similarities between heat-loss and the loss of orbital momentum.
Continuous replenishment of such a loss of momentum by the absorption of suitable resonance frequencies, balancing the continuous frictional losses.
The continuing "consumption" of energy by matter.
The creation of a funnel or vortex; the lowering of the pressure-gradient of a specific frequency of the electro-magnetic grid.
The wandering of orbital energy particles, and their surrounding funnels.
The fuson of funnels after approximation by chance.
The "low-pressure trough".
The similarities between the funnel phenomenon and the manifestations of "gravity".
Attempts to match the ideas of energy-capture or consumption with the concepts of mass and inertia.

Therefore, the elementary, rotatory complex of locked-up matter-energy absorbs certain amounts of energy from the surrounding grid, if it encounters suitable frequencies that can excite or increase the spin of the orbiting energy quanta, and, it also gives-off a more or less random electro-magnetic radiation, as it returns to a state of equilibrium.

However, if we visualise the possibility that certain selective and fortuitous resonances can increase the total energy-content of the system, we must also visualise, that a large proportion of the passing electro-magnetic disturbances would create a "friction" with the orbiting energy quanta. These quanta are oscillating or rotating within a sea of such disturbances, and the rotatory movements, taking place across ever-varying force-fields, would tend to slow-down their rotatory movements, as small bits of energy are transferred in the form of a spreading disturbance, which becomes super-imposed upon the existing fluctuations of the electro-magnetic grid.

It would, therefore, not be unreasonable to expect a continuous, if fractional slowing-down of the orbiting quanta as they give-off slight, random electro-magnetic vibrations to the interference-pattern of the electro-magnetic grid, even, if the occasional absorption of a fortuitous frequency or wave-front is able to boost the rotational energy of the elementary particles back to stable levels. Is it, therefore, far-fetched to visualise these elementary particles as absorbing, and giving-off, energy to their electro-magnetic environment? Is it far-fetched or ridiculous to question the totally closed concept we have about the energy relationships of an elementary particle in space?

It is true, that the total energy-content of the particle does not change, if the particle remains stable, but the particle fluctuates, continuously, between the critical limits of its possibilities of existence. It may, either, be excited by the absorption of a quantity of resonant energy, or, it may slowly run-down its rotational energy-content because of this slow loss of energy through "friction" with the electro-magnetic environment. At least, in theory, it may, eventually, lose too much of its spin to remain stable. We remind ourselves, that a similar situation occurs, suddenly and dramatically, when two particles with an opposite spin collide, and, we have some experimental evidence for the concepts that let us visualise the creation of photons, or other elementary particles, if such an annihilation of momentum happens.

What evidence do we have for the concept of the slowing-down of an orbital spin on account of this friction with the electro-magnetic environment? Do we have some evidence that a particle may lose stability because of a loss of orbiting or rotational energy? Let us acknowledge, here, that this idea is purely speculative, and, there is no evidence at all, at the present time, for such a loss of energy. At least, I am not aware of any evidence for such an interpretation of reality, unless we accept the concept that the phenomenon of gravity is the evidence we are looking for.

We acknowledge also, that such a concept seems to contradict the well-established idea of energy-transfer in discrete packages or quanta. It may well be, however, that energy-transfers in terms of changing electron orbits do, indeed, require definite quanta of energy-absorption or release, but, the fractional losses of energy to the surrounding electro-magnetic environment, such as occurs in the radiation of heat, may not require energy transfers in the form of discrete quanta. Let us explore these ideas a little further.

The concept of a constant loss of energy to the electro-magnetic grid of the environment, in the form of an atomic or molecular slowing-down of its thermal oscillation, (a process called "heat loss"), is well accepted, and, we know, how the oscillations of matter-particles slow-down, if the temperature is allowed to fall. We have learned to make use of the very precise relationships of temperature and the frequency of atomic oscillation in the technology of "atomic clocks", but, we should realise, that we are talking, in essence, about the same principles, when we postulate, that, orbiting or oscillating energy-quanta can lose some of their energy to the electro-magnetic environment in the form of electro-magnetic disturbances.

Unless a constant supply of energy is delivered in the form of electro-magnetic resonances that can be absorbed, the loss of energy through thermal electro-magnetic waves will dissipate this energy into the surrounding space. Therefore, the ideas that relate to the need for a continuous replenishment of orbital energy for any orbital form of energy-existence, may not seem so far-fetched as our first impressions would let us believe, but, we acknowledge, that, in the concept of "heat-transfer", we are talking about electro-magnetic exchanges between a matter particle as a whole and its electro-magnetic environment. In the concept of "frictional losses" of the locked-up energy quanta, we are visualising an inter-change between the internal, rotatory quanta of matter-energy, and, the surrounding electro-magnetic grid. The latter ideas are purely speculative.

We should emphasise, once again, the differences in the forms of energy that are absorbed and given-off. Only energy-forms with suitable characteristics of frequency and energy-level can be absorbed to impart or replenish orbital energy-forms, depending on the configuration of these rotating energy-complexes. This applies to the well-established mechanisms of heat-transfer, as well as the speculative imagery of electro-magnetic exchanges between the locked-up energy-forms that make-up the larger atomic and sub-atomic particles.

The random interference-patterns between the locked-up energy-forms and the locally existing electro-magnetic force-fields are given-off as a "waste" radiation; a random, non-utilisable form of energy. This does not mean, however, that such energy can never be captured by rotating energy-forms again, because there are many different forms of rotating energy complexes, and, besides, at another point in the grid of electro-magnetic disturbances, the fortuitous co-incidence of wave-patterns may form a suitable energy-form; suitable to be absorbed at that particular point in the form of a specific configuration of "resonance energy".

We may visualise, then, a continuous, if minute absorption of suitable electro-magnetic energy by a rotating energy-complex, as well as a diffuse radiation of waste-energy that is useless at that particular time and moment to sustain rotational energy-forms. If we consider the diffuse availability of absorbable energy as a field with a certain density or strength, then, we may consider the effects, when, at a certain point in this field, some of this energy is continuously being utilised. Obviously, a pressure-gradient develops, where the pressure exerted by this energy-field is lower at the point of "consumption" than it is in the surrounding areas. A "funnel" or vortex is created, where a continuous flow of energy takes place into the "consuming" orbital energy-forms.

We have assumed, before, that the primordial orbital energy-form is rather tentative and unstable, and, a continuous "search" for more stable forms of existence is therefore going-on. These locked-up energy-forms will not be so easily disrupted by fluctuating energy-potentials. We can not speculate, at this time, how such an increased stability may come-about, but, let us assume, that, eventually, there exist a number of relatively stable orbital energy-forms, all funneling a small stream of the suitable energy through their systems, and, giving-off waste-energies of electro-magnetic radiation to their environment. There will be a number of small funnels with locally depressed energy-pressures for the specifically suitable or consumable form of energy, and these funnels wander and roam-about, randomly, subjected to a kind of Brownian movement, as we discussed before.

Chance will eventually bring two such particles in a close enough proximity for their surrounding funnels or vortices to touch, and, as a result, the configuration of the energy-funnel will change and starts to form a "low pressure trough", which connects the two funnels. If this occurs, the pressures upon the funnels become unequal, and, where the trough is starting to shape, the pressures are lower than on the opposite sides. This pushes the funnels closer together, as if there existed a force of mutual attraction between the two.

As the funnels come closer, the trough deepens and the two elementary particles, rotating and consuming energy at the center of their funnels, will be driven closer together at an ever increasing speed. As they move closer to each other, the momentum of each particle will tend to make them by-pass each other, and, this would result in a centrifugal force attempting to separate the funnels. We have seen, that the funnels tend to fuse together because of the environmental energy-pressures, and, therefore, the forces of fusion and separation, (which take place on account of the momentum of the orbiting energy particles as they pass-by each other), will be balancing each other. Unless speed and momentum are very great and the particles are on an exact collision course, it is likely, that the elementary particles will now start to rotate around each other, both locked into a mutual orbit at the center of a larger and deeper funnel, since the flow of energy into the particles is equal to the sum of each funnel separately.

These considerations of the forces at play show us, therefore, a process that is similar or identical in appearance to the phenomena observed in gravitational attraction. The size and steepness of the funnel increases as more and more particles collect in the center, collectively bound in an orbital rotation around each other, as the centrifugal momentum of each particle is balanced against the centripetal energy-pressures of the electro-magnetic surroundings.

We have surreptitiously introduced into this description of the fusion of low-pressure funnels and troughs, the ideas of gravitation and mass, and, we should, once more, look at these ideas very closely, and see, whether or not we can, indeed, match the ideas of mass, inertia and energy-capture in a coherent conceptual framework.

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Chapter 13

Content

Back to the grid of criss-crossing electro-magnetic wave-fronts.
The conceptual problems associated with an effortless faithfulness in following the fluctuations of the grid by a point-source of existence.
The disappearance of the tension-gradient or sensitivity to the energy-potential.
All objects of existence must be able to experience these tension-gradients or energy-potentials.
The concept of mass-less particles is, therefore, an essential contradiction; e = mc2.
Energy can not exist if the mass is zero, because c2 is a finite constant.
Another attempt to equate mass and inertia with energy-capture.
The absorption of radiant quanta by an elementary particle; as a resonance-frequency, boosting the internal energy-content, or, as a non-specific agitation of the particle as a whole, or thermal energy-content.
Inertia; the measure of "slowness" in yielding to electro-magnetic energy-potentials.
Mass; the environmental pressures of the electro-magnetic energy-potentials on the vortices or funnels of the "consuming" particles of matter.
Shifting our attention to shifting reference systems.
The observation of the fixed speed of electro-magnetic propagation.
The Doppler shift.
The definition of time; atomic clocks and their oscillations.
Uniform changes, and the inability to detect these changes, because of the lack of a standard of reference.
The observer as an atom, traveling at a great speed in relation to another observer-atom.
Discrepancies in measurements and conclusions.
Problems in determining the status of "rest".
The absence of a "bow-wave effect", if traveling at a uniform speed through the electro-magnetic grid.
Questioning the validity of the conclusion that the speed of light is constant.
Relativity is based on the finite velocity of light, and not on an absolute value for the speed of electro-magnetic propagation.
The differences between special and general relativity.
The Galilean transformations assumed the instantaneous transmission of light.
Differing velocities of light in a variety of natural media.
Differing propagation velocities of a wave-front with differing internal frequencies.
Light, influenced by gravitational and electro-magnetic force-fields.
Problems with the measurements of the constancy of the speed of light.
The difficulties of finding a source of light with a significantly different inertial system of reference.
Is the speed of light indeed constant?
Relativistic reality perceptions, and the changes in time, mass and dimension, based upon the finite speed of light in widely diverging inertial systems.
Similar conclusions can be reached without accepting an absolute constant for the speed of light.

We go back, again, to our grid of criss-crossing electro-magnetic wave-fronts in the concept of a gigantic force-field of ever-varying electro-magnetic potentials, and, we have visualised a hypothetical point-existence, capable of yielding with those forces without any resistance. We have seen, how such a point-source of existence would slide randomly hither and thither, carrying-out each leg of its travels at the speed of light, and, we have noted, how the forces acting upon such a mass-less point of existence approach the value of zero as this point of existence yields completely without effort and without inertia to the undulating force-field.

However, we have, here, a significant conceptual difficulty. There is the tacit assumption, that such a point-source is capable of experiencing the undulating force-field, otherwise, it would not be influenced at all. If it does experience a force-field, then, there must be an energy-potential; a tension or pressure-gradient acting upon this point-source of existence, otherwise, it would not be able to move with the undulating force-field.

The more we visualise an existence that moves effortlessly and instantaneously, the smaller the tension-gradient has to be, until it approaches zero, or non-existence, the moment our point-source undulates and moves with perfect fidelity in unison with the undulating force-field. Yet, at the same time that it would reach such a perfect conformity with the fluctuating force-field, it would lose its capability to "feel" this force-field, and, for this reason, the existence of a completely inert, mass-less entity, flowing with the fluctuating force-field without showing any form of resistance or slowness, is a conceptual impossibility.

We have to state, that, any particle of existence, regardless, how small or mass-less in appearance, must have the ability to experience a tension-gradient, or force-field, through its system in order to be susceptible to this force. As the inertia approaches zero, the speed of yielding approaches the velocity of light, and, the driving force, the tension-gradient through the system, approaches zero. Therefore, the concept of mass-less energy-quanta or elementary particles, is, to my way of thinking, a complete misconception, because, even, in the fundamental relativistic equation e=mc2, it is shown, clearly, that energy or matter can not exist, if the mass approaches zero, since c2 is a finite constant.

Since our hypothetical and theoretical point-source of existence is, in reality, always a conglomerate of orbiting, rotating or oscillating energy-quanta, it becomes obvious, that mass, or inertia, is always present, and, it is clear, that the concept of an ability to perceive or inter-act with the undulating electro-magnetic force-field, precludes the total absence of any mass or inertia.

Let us see, once more, whether or not we can equate the concepts of inertia, or mass, with the ability of the orbiting systems to capture energy from the undulating force-fields. A quantum of energy can be contained in the ripple which is speeding along at the velocity of light, and, we have discussed, before, that a measure of stability is imparted to such an open-ended, radiating form of existence by the velocity of its propagation. We have postulated, that such a speeding train of vibrations through the undulating electro-magnetic force-field or grid, may, under suitable circumstances, be captured by a rotating or orbiting energy-system, and energy is, then, transferred from the open-ended, high-velocity form, to a spinning or orbiting form. Such a transformation should give rise to a sudden significant force, probably, over a very short period of time. Since energy is the product of force and time, the shorter the time in which such an energy-transfer takes place, the higher the force that is experienced by the system absorbing the impact.

We postulate, that this energy can be transferred to a rotating or orbital system in two, fundamentally different ways. On the one hand, the absorbed energy may increase the internal energy-level of the system, such as by increasing the angular momentum of the spin of a part of the entire complex, like the excitation of an orbiting electron. This results in an enlargement of the orbiting radius of an orbiting quantum or part of the entire complex. On the other hand, a part or all of the force may be absorbed by yielding in the overall direction of the impact; imparting a certain kinetic energy to the system as a whole, which is the essence of a "heat", or, a thermal form of agitation.

We come back, therefore, to the idea of a "Brownian movement", or thermal agitation of orbiting energy-systems. These systems move at a speed that is considerably less than the velocity of light, and, these systems exhibit, probably, an almost infinite variety of energy-absorption states with continuously varying ratios of thermal agitation and internal excitation. Resistance to the force-fields of the electro-magnetic surroundings are expressed as inertia and mass, and they are related in a conceptual scheme, where it can be seen, that the force-field experienced by an orbiting energy-system of matter-energy depends on the ability of a matter particle to capture the energy of the force-field, as well as on the slowness with which it yields to the fluctuations of this force-field.

The inertia, or "slowness of yielding" of a system, is related to the number of energy-quanta locked into the orbital form of existence, and, we have seen, that, the internal energy-consumption of an orbiting system, or, the size of its gravitational funnel, is also directly proportional to the number of orbiting elementary particles.

Mass is conventionally related to gravitational force-fields, but, in our model, gravitational attraction is directly proportional to the quantity of energy, locked into the orbiting energy complexes, because the "environmental" pressures from the grid depend upon the slope or "steepness" of the funnel or vortex, which depends, in turn, upon the rate of energy consumption. This energy consumption is again proportional to the number of energy-quanta contained in a locked-up or orbital form of existence.

Inertia remains a concept of resistance to a sudden change in the direction of a momentum, and, we have seen, how the magnitude of this resistance is directly proportional to the number of quanta, or, the energy-level of the aggregate of elementary complexes, locked into a rotatory or orbital form of existence. After all, a change in the direction of an orbiting complex of elementary particles, means, that the forces acting upon this complex and its surrounding funnel, have to overcome the pressures of the electro-magnetic grid in the direction of the changed momentum. Mass and inertia have, therefore, the same value for all orbital forms of energy, or "matter", in a more conventional way of looking at these physical realities.

We will now transfer the focus of our attention to the imagery of changing reference systems, and, we will, also, "play the game" of being an observer in a particular reference system, and, we imagine this observer to be looking at phenomena taking place in a reference system that is moving at a great speed in relation to the reference system of the observer. If a point-existence is "at rest", (whatever this means), the observer on this point of rest may examine the passing of all sorts of electro-magnetic wave-fronts. He may determine their speed and come to the conclusion that he obtains always a specific, fixed value for their speed, regardless from what direction these electro-magnetic waves are coming.

He is also aware of the fact, that a source of electro-magnetic waves coming at him with great speed, will show a higher frequency than the same wave coming from a source that is speeding away from him. This phenomenon is comparable to the train, which is blowing its whistle as it speeds past us, while we are waiting at an unguarded crossing. The pitch of the whistle suddenly drops as the locomotive races past us. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact, that we experience, not only, the frequencies as emitted from the source, but also, the addition or subtraction of a number of vibrations caused by the relative movement towards, or away from, the source of origin. This is the Doppler shift or phenomenon.

However, if we measure the velocity of the electro-magnetic wave, we do not seem to detect any differences in the speed of the wave-front, regardless what the frequency of this wave-front is, regardless, where the electro-magnetic wave is coming from, and, regardless of the relative velocities between ourselves and the source of the electro-magnetic disturbance. The propagation speed, measured in our particular environment, seems to be always the same. What is happening, here, is a curious phenomenon that seems to defy our sense of logic.

Let us, first, look at our definition of "time". We measure time with some sort of a regularly recurring periodicity, and, in modern times, we have learned to use the stable frequencies of atomic oscillators functioning under a carefully controled set of circumstances, such as a constant temperature, etc. It is possible, of course, that under certain circumstances, all these periodic phenomena could change in equal amounts and ratios, and, we would, then, not be able to detect the fact that our measure of time had changed. We can only detect a change, if there has occurred a change in the periodicity of the object of observation in relation to the object we use to measure our observations.

Let us assume that our point-source of existence is a constantly oscillating atom. If it can measure, very precisely, how many oscillations it takes for an electro-magnetic wave to travel a certain distance, one sees, or measures, that, waves from all directions travel at exactly the same speed. Our observing atom comes to the conclusion, that all waves travel with this constant velocity past him, while he is "at rest". Yet, he also knows, that he may not be at rest. He can be sure that he is not at rest, but the results of his observations do not change. This creates a problem. If there is another point-source, another stable oscillating atom of exactly the same kind, speeding away from the first observer at a great speed, this observing atom may come to exactly the same conclusions as the first observer, and, the second observer may, even, come to exactly the same constant for the velocity of the electro-magnetic wave-front. How can this be the case?

If our first atom sees the second atom go by at a great speed, the only way he can measure the frequency of the second atom's oscillations, is to measure the frequency of the electro-magnetic waves coming to him, and, because of the rapidly receding source of these electro-magnetic waves, he comes to the concluson, that the oscillations of the second atom are slower than his own, and, that, therefore, the time, measured by the second atom is not the same time as his own. Similarly, the second atom receives electro-magnetic information from the first atom as it speeds away from him, and this second atom gets also a slowed-down electro-magnetic vibration or measurement, and, it comes, also, to the conclusion, that the time measured by the first atom is slower than his own.

What are the consequences? Both believe, because they have measured it, that the time measured by the other is slower than their own time. Each observer comes to this conclusion on account of the electro-magnetic radiation or vibrations it has received from the other. Both conclude, that the frequency of these vibrations has been slowed-down by the Doppler effect. The moment these two atoms remain at the same distance from each other, regardless, how far removed, they will agree, that their atomic clocks are ticking at identical frequencies, and yet, neither experienced any change from the time that they were receding from each other to the time that they did not move in relation to each other. Nevertheless, each observer is correct in his observations about the fact, that the other's time measurements seemed to be slower when they were receding from each other.

Similarly, if I, as an observer, experience, or measure, the frequency of an atomic oscillation, identical to my own, but coming at me with a great velocity, I, as the first atom, will have the impression, that the frequency of the atomic oscillations, (and, therefore, the measurement of time on this second system), is much faster than the oscillations of my own atomic clock. Again, we have here a phenomenon that can be explained on account of the Doppler effect.

We have seen, that any orbitally existing energy-form must be slower, much slower in its propagation through space than the electro-magnetic wave-fronts, but, when do we say, that such an orbital form is "at rest"? When do we say that "it does not move"? What kind of reference system do we use to measure the movement or velocity of such an orbital oscillating particle. "Simple", you will say, "if you see all the electro-magnetic waves criss-crossing with the same velocity, then, you know, that you are at rest. If you would be moving in one direction or another, the velocity of the magnetic waves following you would appear to be slower, while the ones you are meeting head-on in your travels, would be faster. You could, then, determine in what direction, and, with what velocity you would have to correct your own speed in order to find this absolute point of rest".

Yet, we have just seen, that we do not find any differences in the propagation velocity of electro-magnetic waves, regardless from what source or direction they came from. We come to the conclusion, that we are already "at rest", and, that we can measure all motion in relation to our particular frame of reference. Why would we be "at rest", in particular, since we know, now, from our studies of the Universe, that our earth is not anymore "at rest" than any other body in space. Do we, indeed, measure correctly, when we conclude, that the propagation speed of all electro-magnetic waves is the same, or, are we seeing only the propagation speed in our particular earthly surroundings, or "medium"?

By questioning the validity of the scientific conclusions about the constancy of the speed of light, we seem to contradict, or undermine, the validity of the entire theory of relativity, which has proven to be so extremely useful, when handling predictions and problems associated with high-energy particles. If particle accelerators can be successfully built, and, if the behaviour of high-velocity particles can be accurately predicted, it seems utterly ridiculous and frivolous to deny the validity of relativistic calculations.

Precisely, and the last thing we propose, here, is to deny the validity of relativistic interpretations and calculations, but, we can make a distinction, first of all, between the success of relativistic calculations that have been based, primarily, on the concepts of "special relativity", and, the much vaguer, far more speculative ideas of "generalised relativity". In addition, I feel, that it is perfectly correct to say, that the whole concept of refining the relationships between inertial systems of reference, is based upon the acknowledgement, that light is transmitted with a finite velocity, and not instantaneously, as the Galilean transformations assumed. It is this consideration of the finite velocity of light, which led to the conceptual refinements of our physical realities and concepts of relativity, and, not the emphasis upon the fact, that the velocity of light is, under all conditions and in all frames of reference, similar or identical.

We know, e.g., that the velocity of light is different in various media, when compared with the vacuum of outer space, and, we also know, that waves may differ slightly in their velocities amongst themselves, if we consider the velocity of a composite wave-front, or, a group of electro-magnetic waves with varying frequencies. These wave-fronts are traveling at almost the same speed, but the propagation velocity is not completely identical for the varying frequencies, if we examine their propagation through a medium like transparent glass. Besides, we also know, that light is influenced by gravitational forces and electro-magnetic forces, and, we know, that, nowhere in space, are these influences totally absent.

It certainly is remarkable, that we get the impression that the speed of light in vacuo, or outer space, is an absolute constant, but, if we review the findings and the history of those determinations of the velocity of light, we see, that light was almost always generated on earth. The light used in these experiments and measurements was, not only, generated on earth, but it was manipulated, quite drastically, and, often, involved reflections, stroboscopic interruptions, refractions and double refractions, polarisations, interference phenomena, etc., and, all these manipulations took place in several media, including the earth's atmosphere and gravitational fields.

Do we, really, have valid reasons to believe, that the speed of light would always be measured as identical, irrespective where it came from? Are we really justified in believing, that our measurements of the speed of light would indeed be identical, if it would be possible to carry-out such determinations with light that has originated from an inertial reference system that is significantly different from ours; differing from us with a significantly large fraction of the speed of light?

It is my impression that the soundness of the relativistic conclusions and the mathematical formulae used to transpose data from one system of reference to another, is based upon the consideration, that time is a function of light, or, rather, that the measurement of time is a function of an electro-magnetic wave propagation, and, our relativistic insights are based upon the consideration that such a wave propagation has a finite velocity. Relativistic physics comes, therefore, to the remarkable conclusion, that time slows-down, mass increases and dimensions become shorter in the direction or axis of the movement, if two reference systems are "flying by" each other at a great speed, representing a significant fraction of the speed of light.

We will try to visualise the rationale of these conclusions by taking into account the finite velocity of the electro-magnetic wave-front propagation, but, without accepting an absolute constant for the speed of light. We will try to build-up such an imagery on the basis of relationships between radiant and orbital states of matter-energy, as we see these different forms to exist as photons and elementary particles.

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Chapter 14

Content

Light from a terrestial source and a quasi-stellar object.
The possible influence of local "media" upon the velocity of light, e.g., the earth's atmosphere, terrestial, solar and galactic gravitational fields.
The crossing of countless galaxies by light from quasi-stellar objects.
What are quasi-stellar objects?
Negligeable differences in local inertial reference systems.
The galaxy as a frozen, slowly spinning wheel, locked into a gravitational "hold".
Quasars, or quasi-stellar objects, are galaxies, "seen", when they existed near the time of origin of the Universe.
The assumption of a homogeneous Universe; several billions of years ago, as well as now.
Nearby galaxies are seen to exist in a gravitational embrace, and may even be colliding, indicating, that the Universe was expanding before, but is now stationary or contracting.
The "red-shift", approaching zero, as the expansion speed was close to the speed of light at the begining of the origin of the Universe.
The Big Bang theory.
A review of modern ideas about the Universe and the nature of matter and energy; the oscillating Universe.
A return to questions about local influences.
The influence of elementary particles upon the homogeneity of space, and, the apparent homogeneity of the electro-magnetic grid, in spite of different vantage-points from inertial systems in motion relative to each other.

Let us first consider the question, whether or not it is likely, that we can detect any differences in the velocity of light, when comparing the light velocity from a source within our own reference system with the velocity of light coming from a source, that is, indeed, speeding away from us at a very high velocity, as we think is the case with the quasi-stellar objects that are at the periphery of our cosmic vision.

In addition, we have to be able to rule-out any equalisation of electro-magnetic velocities in the vicinity of the earth on account of the existence of a local "medium". This medium may not just be the earth's atmosphere, but, we should also consider the possible influence of the gravitational field of the earth, the sun, or the gravitational influences of our galaxy. Besides, we will have to consider the fact, that any light reaching us, now, from these enormously distant sources, has apparently been traveling for billions of years, and must, therefore, have crossed countless galaxies with their gravitational fields, as well as other influences which may have altered the velocity of the wave-propagation. Then, we have to ask ourselves, whether this distant light, coming from such far-away quasars, represents light emitted from "material bodies", or, are we seeing "galaxies" in a state, prior to the massive contraction of orbital energy-forms in the form of stars?

These are important questions to consider. If we look at our sun, we see, that the relative speed of the earth away or towards the sun, is negligeable compared to the speed of electro-magnetic propagation, and we may safely consider the sun to belong to our own inertial system of reference. Even, the variation in distance between the planets of the solar system is so small, that we can not find any significant source of light that is originating in another inertial system with a large speed differential. If we look at the nearby stars, we realise, that our entire galaxy is frozen into a slowly spinning wheel by gravitational interlocking. The only speed differential that may be present, is due to local orbiting phenomena, such as the earth orbiting around the sun. Indeed, the inertial systems between our earth and other stars in our galaxy, vary, really, very little.

The only source of light that has a large speed differential, is the light coming from a quasi-stellar object, seen at enormous distances from us. These "quasars", or quasi-stellar objects, seem to be receding from us at speeds that are a significant fraction of the speed of light, and, it would be interesting to know, whether we have been able to obtain accurate determinations of the velocity of this type of light.

We have interpreted the well-known red-shift of these quasi-stellar objects as a consequence of the speed with which they are receding from us, and, we have also been able to determine that their distance is several billions of light-years away. Indeed, we are detecting, now, photonic energy on earth, which left these quasi-stellar objects billions of years ago. This means, that we see these objects now, as they were, several billions of years ago, and, the observation, that we see them all around us, in every direction, seems to indicate, that we may be looking at a small sample of the Universe as it was expanding several billions of years ago.

If we accept the basic assumption, that the Universe is homogeneous, now, as well as then, and, if we acknowledge the likelyhood, that we do not find ourselves smack in the middle of the Universe after its Big Bang beginnings, we come to the following conclusions. First of all, we see, that the galaxies close to us, representing the state of the Universe in a much more recent time-period, are not receding from each other, and, it seems, that some of them are locked into a mutual gravitational "hold". It is likely, that some galaxies are even colliding with each other, and, this indicates that the Universe, seen in a much more recent stage of development, is not expanding anymore, and may, actually, be contracting.

If these quasi-stellar objects represent the situation of the Universe "as it was several billions of years ago", we have to come to the conclusion, that, indeed, the Universe was uniformly expanding at an enormous speed, close to the speed of light. Since an expansion at the speed of light would cause a red-shift into a zero frequency, it means, that the expansion of the Universe at the speed of light, in the earliest beginnings after the Big Bang, would not be visible to us. It may be, however, that very low frequencies of electro-magnetic wave-fronts, coming to us from the all regions of the observable Universe, represent, indeed, an even earlier existence during near-light expansion speeds.

At the present time, it seems reasonable to form a mental imagery that lets us see the Universe beginning as an enormous mass of radiating energy, expanding at the speed of light, until such time as the formation of orbital energy-forms, or matter, was beginning to take place. This would lead to increasing gravitational fields that go along with the existence of matter-energy as "funnels" or vortices, providing, eventually, enough mass and inertia to slow-down, and, even, halt the processes of Universal expansion. The eventual fusion of many, enormously large gravitational fields or vortices of energy-gradients, will reverse, or, has already reversed the process of expansion into one of gigantic contraction, with multiple centers of radiant energy-production, as well as a few extremely large centers of ultimate matter-energy conversions, where all orbital energy-forms are transformed back into a radiant form.

We see the image develop of a gigantic Universe, expanding and collapsing periodically, as the predominant form of energy-existence oscillates between the radiant and orbital forms of existence. As we mentioned, the evidence seems to suggest, that the phase of contraction has already begun, because the nearby galaxies are not receding anymore from each other.

Let us return, now, to the other questions we have raised, such as the influence of a "local medium" on the propagation velocity of electro-magnetic waves, as well as the overall "medium" in the relative homogeneity of outer space with its electro-magnetic grid, far away from local gravitational distortions. We will also consider the possible influence of numerous, small, scattered and randomly distributed orbital energy-forms, together with their numerous, small, gravitational vortices. We should consider their influence upon the characteristics and qualities of "homogeneous space". Finally, we will return, once more, to consider the homogeneity of the electro-magnetic grid, the existence possibilities of quanta of energy and the stability of wave-packets, as well as the fact, that, random flcutuations remain random, even, if they are considered from different inertial reference systems that are in motion relative to each other.

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Chapter 15

Content

Light and the field of gravitational attraction.
Light from quasi-stellar objects, and the distance it has traveled.
The crossing of many gravitational fields by this light.
The stability of certain radiant energy-forms.
The laser beam; the "giant photon".
Modulating a beam of synchronous electro-magnetic vibrations.
The bouncing electron.
Ripples in an electro-static field.
The rapid attenuation of an electro-static field, unless sustained between positive and negative charges.
The magnetic line of force emanating from the spinning electron.
The vibrations of this line of force during the bouncing of an electron.
The mutual induction of the electric and magnetic components of an electro-magnetic vibration.
The phase-differential between electric and magnetic components.
The level of energy; frequency and amplitude of electro-magnetic vibrations.
The direction of the wave-front in relation to the electro-static sphere around an electron.
The photon and anti-photon; mirror images of each other.
The closed loop of magnetic lines of force.
A return to the electro-magnetic grid; mechanisms of decay of a radiant energy-form.
The "boost" of internal energy-levels by the absorption of suitable resonance frequencies.
Space, as seen from our particular vantage-point.
A point in space, and its description in relation to a frame of reference.
Randomness remains random, even, if inertial reference systems are moving in relation to each other.
The crossing of an electro-magnetic wave-front through a small volume of space, seen as a volume of points and described in relation to a system of reference.
The waxing and waning of powerful, super-imposed oscillations.
The same wave, crossing a volume of space enclosed by a system of reference, and, in motion, compared to another system of reference.
The slowed transit-time of a wave, if the second reference system is traveling in the same direction as the wave-front; seen from the first system of reference.
Lower frequencies, slower transit times, but a similar number of oscillations.
The constant product of time and frequency.
If the speed of propagation of all electro-magnetic wave-fronts is the same, the "local medium" has influenced the speed of propagation. In this case, the energy-content of the wave-front as originally emitted, becomes unmeasurable, because the frequency is now meaningless as a parameter of energy-content.
The Doppler phenomenon or red-shift of quasi-stellar objects.
If the speed of light from quasars is not slowed-down as measured on earth, a local influence is responsible for the "red shift". This is unlikely and therefore, the light emitted by quasars is, probably, slowed-down in their transit time.
The slowing-down of "clocks" on a fast-receding system of reference.
The reciprocity of the red-shift, or slowing of clocks, between observers on either system, if they are rapidly receding from each other.
The "correction" of these apparent discrepancies, and, the conclusion that measurements will appear identical in either system of reference.
The apparent denial of the foundation of the theory of relativity.
The dependence of this theory upon the finite velocity of light, in stead of an absolute constant of this velocity.
The relationships between the Doppler effect, red-shifts and changes in the flow-rate of time.
The absence of any compelling reason to believe, that the apparent constants of the velocity of light in specific reference systems should be identifical to each other.

It is likely, that the presence of matter or orbital energy-forms, such as the molecules in the earth's atmosphere, influences the velocity of light, because these particles contribute to the phenomenon of gravity, and we know, that light is influenced by a gravitational field. We may consider gravitational forces, as well as electro-magnetic interference patterns, as a sort of "medium", which affects light, and, perhaps, also its propagation velocity.

When we consider, again, the enormously lengthy travel of light reaching us from quasi-stellar objects, as they existed several billions of years ago, it becomes highly unlikely, that the propagation velocity of such light has never been altered or influenced in all those years of travel. Indeed, it is remarkable, that some of this light survives at all, enough to let us know about the existence of such quasi-stellar objects, as they were, several billions of years ago.

If electro-magnetic waves travel that long and that far, they must have crossed numerous gravitational disturbances and countless galaxies, and, we have indeed no idea, really, whether or not this light has been bent and altered to such a degree, that our projections of these qusi-stellar objects as they appear to us now, correspond in any way with a reality of existence in the past. If the light-beams have been bent, we project the quasi-stellar objects in positions where they never existed, and, the whole reconstruction of the existence of these phenomena is, indeed, rather tenuous. So far as I am aware, we do not know the propagation speed of this light, which, we think, has come to us from these distant and early galaxies during their formative stages of evolution, and, which gives us, we think, a glimpse of the Universe as it existed, billions of years ago.

If we consider the time-span, distance and number of influences that must have affected the existence of these ancient photons, it becomes amazing, how stable certain forms of radiant energy are. We realise, that we are receiving only an unimaginable small fraction of the light that was initially emitted, and, we assume, that the enormous quantity of simultaneously emitted photons made the survival of a few photons possible, until we, human beings on earth, had a chance to detect their existence and interpret their meaning.

With the modern instruments of the laser, or maser, we can artificially create circumstances, where a large number of electrons vibrate in unison and give-off photonic energy. The photons are emitted by such an instrument in unison, and, in large quantities. We have to visualise these photons as "locked together" by the fact, that their vibrations are "in phase" and their lines of propagation are condensed and run parallel to each other. These photons are locked together in phase and behave as one giant photon. This giant photon pulsates its magnetic and electric components, just as an ordinary, single photon, and, because of this synchrony, very little if any divergence of the individual components takes place.

The energy is transmitted in a highly concentrated manner, yet, it proceeds at the speed of light, because it is light. This continuous stream of giant photons can be modulated by us, and, such a modulated wave-front can be decoded at the place of interception. In this way, a laser-beam may serve as a vehicle to convey arbitrary signals, or "information", which is carried-along by the photonic beam.

However, let us not lose ourselves in technological applications, but, let us go back to have another look at the imagery of the electro-magnetic wave-front, and, perhaps, more importantly, let us have another look at the emission of discrete packages of energy, or quanta, in the form of photons. Let us start, again, with the imagery, where we see an electron spinning rapidly around its axis, while bouncing between two shells or orbits around an atomic nucleus, exploring, continuously, the limits of its possibilities of existence. We can visualise the electro-static component as a sphere around the point-source of existence, or "charge". This is a valid definition of the electron, and the vibrating electron, bouncing in between two stable orbits, causes "ripples" in the electro-static field, like the oscillating dipole of an antenna. These ripples flow-away in all directions as a sphere over which a uniform, circular wave-form spreads into all directions. This imagery suggest, already, the presence of an electron in the process of dissipating a certain amount of excess energy.

The range, or the extention of such an electro-static sphere of charge, is rapidly attenuating, as it gets further and further away from the electron, and, we do not visualise a significant influence or electro-static force-field to be present at any distance from a single electron. This means, that these ripples by themselves are unable to carry-away a significant amount of energy. We have also discussed, how the existence of an electro-static field is enhanced, if a nearby "positive charge" creates a significant extention of such an electro-static field, because it now exists between the positive and negative charges in the form of a tension-gradient or potential energy-gradient. However, in order to explain the ability to carry-away energy, we have to look at another mechanism.

The electron is spinning around its axis, and, we imagine the existence of a magnetic line of force, which emanates from the poles of the spinning electron. This magnetic line of force also attenuates rapidly, and will curve to form a closed loop, as we see in the magnetic lines of force of a magnet. What happens, if this point-source of electro-static charge and the thin magnetic line of force going through the poles of the spinning point-source of charge, exist, both, in a state of rapid vibration? We have described the image of the rippling sphere of an electro-static field potential, but, the magnetic lines of force ripple like a string that is moved quickly up and down, assuming, that the direction of the magnetic lines of force and the vibrating movements of the electron are at right angles to each other.

We have to imagine something like this. The rapidly vibrating magnetic lines of force enhance around themselves the rapidly fluctuating electro-static field potentials, which are situated at right angles to the fluctuating magnetic potential, and, in turn, the rapidly pulsating or vibrating electro-static field-potential tends to create or perpetuate a vibrating or oscillating magnetic field-potential.

If there is no loss of energy, this complex reaches a measure of stability by mutual re-enforcement, and, we may visualise, how, during each to and fro movement of the vibration, energy is exchanged as an oscillation between the magnetic potential and the electro-static potential. As the magnetic potential starts to swing-out towards its maximum level, the change of magnetic flux diminishes rapidly, and, the maxium rate of change, or flux, occurs as the magnetic potential swings through the null-axis, before it comes to rest on the opposite crest. Then, it gathers momentum again and crosses the null-axis, once again, at maximum speed, or rate of change, which is now occurring in the opposite direction.

At the time of the greatest rate of change of the magnetic potential, the electro-static deflection will be greatest, and will, therefore, reach its crests at the time of the swing through the null-axis of the magnetic potential. As the magnetic potential declines and rapidly returns to zero, the entire energy-content is being transferred to the electro-static potential, and this transfer is complete as the electro-static potential reaches its maximum. Then, the electro-static potential declines again and transfers its energy back to the magnetic component, as the electro-static potential swings back to its null-axis.

The magnetic and electro-static components are, therefore, ninety degrees out of phase, and, they vibrate or fluctuate at right angles to each other, mutually re-enforcing their respective force-fields. Under suitable circumstances, the momentum and the energy-content can be retained at the propagation velocity of light. The amount of energy, I presume, is represented by the frequency, the amplitude, as well as the number or length of the train of vibrations.

I think, that this is a reasonable way of looking at the stability and energy-content of the electro-magnetic wave-front, and, we have to assume, that the wave-front proceeds into the direction of the magnetic line of force, because, there, the magnetic and electro-static potentials are at right angles to each other. Therefore, the electro-magnetic wave-front proceeds in two discrete, but opposite directions, as we see in the creation of a photon and anti-photon. The energy is "carried-away" into opposite directions, and, we assume, that these photons will be mirror images of each other and form, indeed, a pair of opposites. However, let us take this imagery with a grain of salt, because it remains, until now, highly speculative.

We should consider, for a moment, the fact, that, in a magnetic field, the lines of force, after emanating from the poles of the magnet, curve towards each other outside the magnet, in order to form a "closed loop". We assume, that the electro-magnetic energy of the quanta being carried-away at the speed of light, "breaks" this loop, but, it may be possible, that this curvature of the magnetic lines of force, facilitates the meeting of quanta which have originated as mirror images of each other, at opposite sides of an electro-magnetic vibration. They may then annihilate each other's forward momentum, forming a "virtual photon" and providing the possibilities for a transformation into various rotatory elementary particles, as we have discussed earlier in this essay.

We come back, again, to the fact, that the electro-magnetic wave-front carries a certain amount of energy through space, and, that it travels in a confused sea of fluctuating electro-magnetic potentials, caused by the interference or mutual inter-actions with numerous other electro-magnetic wave-fronts. There must be a certain energy loss as the wave-front travels through this sea of electro-magnetic disturbances. We have discussed, before, the idea, that the wave-front should suffer minute, fractional energy-losses leading, eventually, to a measure of instability, and, predisposing to the decay of the quantum of energy into an orbital form, or, though the absorption of the photonic quantum by an existing orbital energy-form. However, the gradual, if slight loss of energy may not affect its speed of propagation. We have discussed, that the randomly fluctuating point of the electro-magnetic force-field in space, may, occasionally, boost the energy-content of a wave-form, if the random fluctuations happen to be in phase, or "in tune", with the passing quantum of electro-magnetic vibrations.

It is important to realise, that this imagery is only valid, because it applies to our particular inertial systems of reference, which is the world of matter we live in. Space, then, can be visualised as an enormously vast expanse, where each point, regardless how small, could be represented by a continuously varying, three-dimensional vector-diagram, where the resultant force is a completely random fluctuation in strength and direction of the electro-magnetic potential. Such a field has a curious property, since it does not matter what kind of inertial reference we think about. The randomness of the points does not change, even, if the pattern of randomness of a point changes completely, whenever we think about reference systems that have a uniform motion in relation to each other.

Let us choose an arbitrary reference point to start from, and, we can construct, over a certain segment or volume of space, a three-dimensional diagram, where each point is continuously fluctuating in its electro-magnetic potential. These fluctuations are completely random, as long as this space is not disturbed by a particular phenomenon that will render the space asymmetrical. We look upon a three-dimensional sea of fluctuating potentials, where there is no periodicity, no predictability, wherever we look. If we visualise a reference system that moves in a constant speed away or towards our reference system, we see, again, that each point will exhibit a similar, complete randomness in existence. Of course, the point in one reference system, becomes a series of different points in the other, but randomness does not change, even, if the numerical values are completely different, since we look at different points in the two inertial reference systems.

What happens, when an electro-magnetic quantum crosses our volume of reference points? We can suddenly discover, that a particular reference point describes a super-imposed, powerful and rythmic oscillation, waxing to a maximum, and, then, waning, until complete haphazardness or randomness has been restored. Before one point has ceased to oscillate, or, even, before it has reached its super-imposed peak of oscillations, we see, that a neighbouring point is starting to oscillate in the same manner, etc. We can plot a series of points against time, and we see a linear progression of the super-imposed disturbance, as it passes through our system of reference, until it disappears, and randomness resumes its grey, undifferentiated existence.

Our second reference system will show the same phenomenon, but each point may show a slower or more rapid form of oscillations, depending upon the movements of the second reference system in relation to the direction of the traveling electro-magnetic quantum. It will take longer or shorter for each point to reach its maximum and return to randomness, but, eventually, the same number of oscillations will have taken place, since the same amount of energy will have passed through. It will also take longer for the migrating, ocillatory phenomenon to make its progression through the second reference system, if we assume, that the reference system is moving with a considerable speed in the direction of the passing electro-magnetic wave-front. The frequency of the quantum of energy pasing through, is lower, but, the total number of oscillations is the same, and, consequently, the time it took for the electro-magnetic wave-front to traverse the second reference system, is longer compared to the first one.

Therefore, the speed of propagation of the electro-magnetic wave-front must appear lower for the second reference system, (seen from the vantage-point of the first reference system), than it appears for the first reference system. We must, therefore, assume, that all electro-magnetic quanta with a certain energy-content passing through our system of reference, have a constant product of time and frequency. If the frequency is lower, the transit time is longer. The apparent speed of propagation of an electro-magnetic quantum is determined by the velocity relationships between the reference system and the source of origin of the quantum.

The speed of propagation of an electro-magnetic wave-front may, perhaps, be a fixed constant that has not been determined by the "medium" of a certain reference system, but, it must measure differently in differing inertial systems. However, if the speed of propagation of light becomes dependent upon "local" conditions, or a local medium, the speed of propagation of every electro-magnetic wave, regardless of its source of origin and relative speed of this source of origin, will register the same value. However, as a corollary, we will not be able to determine the energy-content of the original quantum by analysing its frequency.

The original frequency of the electro-magnetic wave-front has then been lost, after its propagation speed has been altered by local conditions. The energy-content of this quantum was originally reflected in its frequency, amongst other parameters, but, with an alteration in the speed of propagation, the frequency becomes meaningless as an indicator for the energy-content. If the phenomenon of the "red shift" is correctly interpreted as a Doppler effect due to a rapidly increasing distance between source and receiver, then, we have to assume, that the propagation speed has been slowed-down as it passes our system of reference. If the propagation speed of this light would not be measured as slower in our rapidly moving system of reference, we will have to postulate some kind of local influence, which is then held responsible for the apparent constancy of the speed of light.

We have to come to the following conclusions; if the red-shift is due to a Doppler effect because of a rapidly receding origin of the light-source, the transit-time of this light has to be slowed-down, as measured by us on earth. If not, then it would not be logical to interpret the low frequency spectrum of this light as an indicator that the source of light is rapidly receding.

Let us now look at the phenomenon of time, if we would be able to monitor the happenings on a fast-receding system of reference. If we, as observers in the first reference system, could measure the processes of time-measurement in the second system, we should get the impression, that the atomic clocks are running slow in this second system of reference, because the electro-magnetic waves, coming to us from their clocks, will be slowed-down by the Doppler effect. We get, therefore, the impression that their measurement of time is slower than ours by exactly the same degree of Doppler shift we can measure as a slowed-down electro-magnetic wave-front coming from the other system of reference.

We come to the conclusion, that observers in the second, receding reference system, measure our time and our electro-magnetic wave-propagation to be slowed-down by exactly the same amount, when compared to their own clocks. We think, and observe, that their clocks are slower than ours, and, they think and observe the same about us. We think and measure that their light is shifted to the red frequencies and is slow in traversing our system of reference, and, they would come to the same conclusions about our existence and our light. Again, we assume, that there is no local medium that equalises all electro-magnetic speeds. Perhaps, this assumption is completely erroneous, because it may well be, that the velocity of light is always determined by local media.

We should, therefore, come to the conclusion, that measurements in either of the two systems of reference, will give the same results, and, we see the same appearance of phenomena that can be observed in each other's systems of reference, but, we should, also, come to the conclusion, that this apparent similarity and apparent constancy of the transit-time of an electro-magnetic wave, is apparent only, caused by relativistic considerations, and, these conclusions may not be substantiated, if we could, indeed, be on each other's reference systems and measure the exact transit-time of an electro-magnetic wave-front.

This sounds like a relativity in reverse. While these arguments were based, originally, on the consequences of a finite velocity of light, the theory of relativity became a corner-stone for the belief that the velocity of light would always have a specific, constant value. However, it appears to me, that relativistic considerations give us the impression that changes in the flow-rate of time in different inertial systems, should also show a comparable slowing-down of the speed of light and other electro-magnetic phenomena, if they could be measured accurately in our own system of reference.

In other words; I, in my system of reference, thinking along relativistic lines, will conclude, that the measurement of the velocity of light, (which I make in my reference system and the measurements which someone else makes in another reference system), will be equal, because discrepancies in the velocity of light are neutralised by changes in the rate of the progression of time. Yet, in reality, the people in different inertial systems of reference, do measure a different velocity of light, but they will, similarly, come to the conclusion, that, anyone in a particular system of reference, must come to the same constant or measurement as they have come to, themselves, also, on account of relativistic considerations.

The velocity of the electro-magnetic wave-front appears to be constant in different inertial systems, when measurements in other systems are compared with one's own system of reference, but, in all probability, this constant will be different for each system, and, each system will give, in turn, universal validity to its particular constants on the basis of relativistic considerations.

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Chapter 16

Content

The appearance of other events in rapidly receding systems of reference.
The energy-capturing ability of elementary particles.
What happens, when the speed of an elementary particle approaches that of an electro-magnetic wave-front.
The theoretical impossibility to accelerate a particle to the speed of light.
The appearance of a rapidly increasing mass or inertia.
The upper limits of the ability to "capture" energy or "feel" a potential differential.
The slowing-down of all periodic phenomena.
Relative motions; trains, the earth revolving around its axis.
The limitations of sensory perceptions.
The reasons, why a "stereoscopic" Universe was an unlikely imagery for such a long time in the development of reality perceptions.
The differences in interpretation between primary sense impressions and sophisticated thought-patterns.
The relativity of "rest".
The crux of the concept of relativity is to learn to abandon the arbitrary choice of a particular system of reference as "the norm".
Difficulties with our existential requirements, when abandoning a center of certainty.
A return to points and their systems of reference; a point or a line.
The drastic change in appearance of the same phenomenon, seen from different, shifting frames of reference.
A review of Galilean transformations and relativistic transformations; their differences in appearance.
Measuring distances in different inertial systems.
The roles of speed and timing.
The consequences of a high-speed "fly-by".
The appearance lagging behind the reality, and, the consequences of seing a cube flying-by at a very high velocity.
The slowness of the transmission of light.
The Doppler effect at the time of a fly-by.

Let us go back to a simpler imagery of relativity, and, let us consider the appearance, from our system of reference, of events taking place in a system that is rapidly moving in relation to us. Since the actual occurrence of extremely high velocities towards each other is unknown in the image of an expanding Universe, we are always assuming, mostly tacitly, that such a relative displacement takes the form of a rapidly enlarging distance.

We will analyse, what is happening to an object flying away at a great speed. We see, that the forces necessary to impart an ever greater momentum have to be electro-magnetic wave-fronts that can be captured, somehow, by this object in order to respond to a significant energy-potential. We have discussed, before, how the actual force operating on a particle, is the differential between the velocity and energy-content of the propelling magnetic wave-front, and the energy-content and speed of the particle in relation to this electro-magnetic impulse. As soon as the velocity of the object or particle comes close to the speed of the electro-magnetic wave-front, a smaller and smaller energy-gradient exists, and, it becomes clear, that the object can never increase its speed to the actual speed of the electro-magnetic wave-front, since it would lose, totally, the ability to "feel" such a force or gradient.

Regardless how much energy is spent, the velocity will remain fractionally lower than the speed of light, and, we may say, therefore, that the mass, or inertia, appears to increase rapidly as the speed of this particle approaches the speed of light. Actually, the energy-transfer from the energizing electro-magnetic wave to the particle becomes increasingly more difficult, as the energy-gradient through the system of the particle begins to approach zero. In other words; the energy-capturing ability of the particle is approaching its upper limits.

Similarly, we have no difficulties imagining, how time appears to be slowing-down on a rapidly receding system of reference. Our observations about all periodic and atomic processes appear to indicate a slowing of the periodicity as compared to our own, because there exists a red-shift, or Doppler shift, of the electro-magnetic spectrum, which conveys the information of this periodicity to us.

We should emphasise, again, that time "appears" to be slower for us, whenever we look at the speedily receding reference-system, but, there is no reason to believe, that time will actually be slower for those on this receding system. We, however, have come to the conclusion, that time, and all periodicities, slow-down on any reference system that is rapidly receding from us, and, those on a fast-receding system have come to the same conclusions, if they observe us and think like us. After all, it is irrelevant, whether we consider another reference to be receding from us, or, our reference-system to be receding from them.

Finally, we will consider the appearance of dimensions between two inertial systems that are rapidly receding from each other. We are all familiar with the phenomenon of two trains moving in relation to each other. If one is "stationary" in relation to the earth, and, if the other is moving with a uniform speed, we would not be able to differentiate between us moving away from the other, or the other moving away from us. Of course, implied, here, is the assumption, that we are not able to compare ourselves, or relate the movements we are subjected to in any way to another point of reference, which could tell us the difference. There is another tacit assumption, nl., that the conditions for us in a slowly but uniformly moving train would be identical to those we have become used to, as we grew-up in the stationary reference system of the earth.

It may, therefore, be better to use the earth and the movements of the moon or the sun as a comparison. Our senses tell us, that we do not experience any motion of the earth, and, consequently, all the movements of the heavenly bodies are perceived as a motion of these bodies around the earth. Since human beings had no indication of any movement of the earth, until quite recently, the apparent movements of stars, planets and the sun, were, obviously, a movement akin to the movements of objects in relation to each other or the earth.

Mankind experienced the sensation, and grew-up in the belief, that, all movements were the result of some action by man, beast or God, and, it was logical to conclude, that the movements of heavenly bodies were caused by such a force as well. The simultaneous movements of all the stars did not pose the same conceptual problem to our forefathers as it would to us in our modern interpretations about the observable Universe. We can argue, with some degree of justification, that it was just this appearance that all heavenly bodies rotated together, which gave credence to the concept, that the earth, as well as man, were, indeed, in the center of the Universe, and, that they had received special attention from the Creator.

The concept of a gigantic, stereoscopic Universe was not possible, until we realised, that the earth did not occupy a central position in the happenings of the Universe. Apart from a few "wanderers", the "planetai" as well as the sun and moon, it was obvious to the human mind of the past, that the stars were "pasted" upon rotating spheres, which centered and revolved around the earth. The primary conclusion of our sense impressions is, still, that the earth is the center of the Universe.

Nothing has really changed with our sensory perceptions, because we still "see" the stars move around the earth, but, based on a long history of developing images and sophisticated interpretations of a large variety of phenomena, we have, gradually, and with considerable difficulties, learned to accept the interpretation, that this apparent motion of the sky or the heavens, is due to an imperceptible, but real, motion of the earth around its own axis.

Later, we learned to acknowledge additional movements of the earth, such as its annual journey around the sun, as well as the movements of the entire solar system within a slowly rotating spiral body, our galaxy; the Milky Way. Even more movements have been conceptualised, such as the relative movements of galaxies in relation to each other, and, we have learned to question the validity of the concept of "rest", including, the concept of any absolute standard from which all motions and appearances are measured or calculated.

What we have done, is to say to ourselves, that an apparently uniform motion away or towards us by another system of existence, can be interpreted, with equal validity, as a movement away or towards this particular system by our position or system of reference. The crux of the concept of relativity lies in the fact, that we have learned to see the complete arbitrariness of calling our own reference system "at rest", and, we have learned, over the past few centuries, that many phenomena are far easier grasped, or conceptualised, in a coherent thought-structure, if we abandon such an arbitrary choice of a preferential system of reference, regardless, how strongly it seems to contradict our sense impressions, and, regardless, how it seems to go against our instinctive need for an absolutely reliable reality, or security, of knowledge and awareness.

However, by recognising the validity of describing reality from any particular system of reference, we have come to see, also, that a certain constant would appear entirely different to different observers, situated in different systems of reference. If we can describe the location of a point in space with three measurements to its planes of reference, and, if we indicate, also, the time or duration such a point existed on a framework that measures time, (a clock), we see, immediately, that a different reference system will have to describe this same point completely differently.

If one system of reference is moving uniformly in relation to another, then, we see, that the point, existing as a point for a certain duration in one reference system, has to be described as a line of a certain length in the system that is moving away. Actually, we have to describe a series of points, or, a point moving along a straight line, proceeding with a specific speed, starting at a precise point and ceasing to exist at another point. The existence of this point can be plotted as a line in time, corresponding to the duration of the existence of this point in the first system of reference.

We see, then, that a phenomenon may appear to change dramatically, if its existence or behaviour is analysed from different points of view. Relativity means, that we have no right to choose, or prefer, the description of a phenomenon in one particular system of reference over the description of this same phenomenon in another. We always seem to fall, tacitly, into the temptation to call the observation or appearance from our particular reference system, as the observation or appearance, which comes closest to reality, and, to see the appearance of this same phenomenon in another reference system as a distortion, created by the relative movement of this system away or towards our familiar system of reference. Such an arbitrary choice of the system of reference should, however, be resisted, and, we should, therefore, cease to call the appearance of the physical world in our system of reference in any way related to an "absolute" reality; a reality, that would not depend on our human existence and our specific, yet arbitrary, systems of reference.

When we still considered the speed of light to be infinite, we only had to translate the spatial coordinates from one reference-system to another, but, as we have seen, the speed of light is not infinite, and measurements depend on the experience of a certain periodicity in our system of reference. We have also seen, that our perception of the periodicity in another system, moving rapidly away from us, or, from which we are rapidly moving away, will be perceived as being slowed-down. We have also argued the complete reversibility of such an observation. If a system is moving rapidly away from our system, we will perceive time, or any form of periodicity, to be slowed-down, but, an observer, monitoring periodicity in our system, while situated on the other system, will perceive exactly the same observation; nl., that the periodicity of our system is slowed-down compared to his own.

These considerations are clear, I hope, and, let us now return to the question, how distance measurements are perceived from one system to another. First, we have to analyse, how we go about the measurement of a distance, when observing a system that is moving in relation to our own vantage-point. I may be able to measure a distance, if I know the speed at which this system is moving in relation to me. All I have to do is to time the passing of two observation points in relation to a fixed point in my own system, and the distance in the other system will be determined by the time multiplied by the speed of the other system, relative to my own.

However, what do we perceive, if this other system passes our system at a very high velocity, such as one-half or two-thirds the speed of light? It becomes, then, difficult to know, when the first observation point on the moving system is exactly parallel, or lined-up, with my point of reference. By the time I have received the imagery from the first observation point on the passing system, this point is already past, and the same applies to the second observation point. I measure the distance correctly as time, multiplied by speed, but this does not correspond with the position they are in at the time I make these measurements. This discrepancy results from the fact, that light takes time to travel the distance between the point of observation and my measuring sight or position.

I see, therefore, the speeding observation points not where they are, but, I see them lagging behind, and, this accounts for the phenomenon, that I would see them slightly in the direction they are coming from, at the time the points are, indeed, exactly lined-up. If I visualise a cube flying by, the appearance for me would be a cube, seen slightly at an angle, displaced towards the direction of origin, at the exact moment this fly-by would take place. In addition, I would see a sudden drop in the frequency of the light emitted from the observation points, as they fly-by at a great speed, because of the Doppler effect. A sudden red-shift would take place as the motion changes from a rapidly advancing to a rapidly receding object.

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sa024f

Chapter 17

Content

Non-inertial reference systems; systems in a state of acceleration in relation to each other.
Further attempts of general relativity to equate the ideas of mass and inertia.
The idea of a space-time continuum, and the distortion of this space-time continuum by the presence of matter.
The curvature of space-time.
Difficulties with these attempts to visualise the nature of the Universe.
The "vanishing" system of reference.
Attempts to relate the "known" or visible part of the Universe to its totality.
The problems with a uniform Universal density of matter-energy in all directions.
The "Big Bang origins of the Universe.
The phenomenon of the Milky Way.
The limitations of our ability to enlarge the visible or scrutinisable sample of the Universe; help from radio-frequencies.
The gravitational inter-locking of close-by galaxies, and the evidence that the period of Universal expansion has already ended.
The compatibility between a finite and infinite Universe.

Perhaps, we should consider, for a moment, non-inertial reference systems, where such systems are seen to be accelerating away from each other. In each reference system, the observation of the other will be explained by the operation of a force acting upon that particular system, while the "home system", our own, appears to be stationary. This means, that the direction or vector of a force is arbitrary, and, the meaning or direction of such a force will be opposite, depending upon the reference system that has been chosen to make the comparison from.

In the ideas of general relativity, such an approach has been adopted in order to make the distinction between gravitational attraction and inertia irrelevant. Acceleration and gravitation are then considered to be identical. If the force of gravity is equated with the constant accelerating force upon a body with mass, this concept leads to the conclusion, that the reference systems of space and time become "distorted" or compressed by the presence of matter. The movements of an object in the vicinity of a mass become, then, deflected towards this object on account of the "curvature" of "space-time", which is a result of the existence of matter. This idea is somewhat related to the idea, that a uniformly moving body through space will follow a line of constant potential, and, if such a line bends or curves, this object will follow the curve without being subjected to a particular force-field. The same explanation or visualisation is followed to explain the curvature of the path of light around a mass, without invoking the concept of gravitational attraction between a mass and the beam of light.

However, these considerations of general relativity run into difficulties. If we see a particle fall to earth under the influence of the earth's gravitational pull, we may visualise an observer to be on such a system, completely oblivious of the impending crash. His explanation for the observation of the phenomenon of acceleration, as he looks away from earth, will be the postulation of a force that is opposite to the direction of the gravitational pull, as he observes other systems of reference to accelerate away from him. Our reference system does not disappear when the falling particle crashes into the earth, but the other system utterly vanishes within an instant. Of course, our existence, our system of reference, could also disappear suddenly, if we happen to be in a comparable situation, falling into some kind of an unfathomable abyss, while being totally oblivious of our constant acceleration.

However, we have learned, to some extent, to take into account the consequences of shifting frames of reference, and, at the present time, we do not have any indication, that the earth is rapidly speeding towards a catastrophic collision. We have learned to incorporate movements of our frame of reference, or our plane of existence, which are not subject to experimental verification or perception. We can do this by shifting to a reference system of the solar system, or, that of the galaxy as a whole.

We have tried to place, not only, our own galaxy, but the entire observable part of the Universe in relation to the total existence of the Universe. In this effort, we have not been very successful, because we have come to see a uniformly expanding Universe, regardless in what direction we look. This could only be the case, if we, either happen to be in the center of the expanding Universe, (a co-incidence that would be as strange as the conclusion, that the earth was the center of a Created Universe), or, we take-in as a sample of the total Universe only an infinitessimal small part of the total Universe.

If we visualise a rapidly expanding ball of light and heat as the primordial origin of the Universe in the imagery of the Big Bang, a uniform density in our field of cosmic vision can only be explained, if we are, either in the center of this cosmic explosion, or, if we see only a tiny fraction of the total Universe. In the latter case, there would not be any appreciable difference in the density of energy-matter, whenever we compare the density of galaxies looking into one direction or another, even if we would happen to look into the direction of the center of the Universe or towards the periphery of the Universe. This is a valid argument, especially, if we compare this with the ability to see the position of our own galaxy within the observable Universe. When we look in the plane of the galactic disc, we see a relative density of star clusters as compared to the direction perpendicular to the plane of the galactic disc. This relative or apparent density is, of course, the phenomenon of the Milky Way.

It would be erroneous to conclude, that we could enlarge, indefinitely, the horizons of our cosmic field of vision, as technology advances. We are already seeing quasi-stellar objects at the periphery of our cosmic vision, receding into the past with a speed close to the speed of light. Even further-distant and further-in-the-past galaxies, or proto-galaxies, would disappear from the possibility of detection, because their receding velocities would be so close to the speed of light, that we get a red-shift to zero levels. However, lower frequency spectra, such as radio-frequencies, may give us some help and could extend the "visible sample" of the Universe, at least, to some extent.

From the fact, that, "close-by" galaxies are not receding, and are, often, locked into a mutual gravitational hold, it seems obvious, that the expansion of the Universe has long since been arrested. Probably, the Universe is contracting again, and, we should never forget, that we look far back into the past of the Universe, as we try to interpret the light, which we can detect from far-distant and fast-receding galaxies. There seems little hope to ever see, compute or grasp the totality of the Universe, and, we may, therefore, safely equate the concepts of a finite and an infinitely large Universe, as being essentially similar in nature.

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Chapter 18

Content

A summary of our ideas about oscillations.
The stability of energy as radiant or orbiting forms of existence.
The nature of gravitational attraction and the electro-magnetic grid.
The gradual weakening or increasing instability of an electro-magnetic wave-front.
The inability to relate, convincingly, all the forces in nature to each other, at our present state of comprehension; the problems of mass and inertia.
The philosophical approach, when making an audacious attempt to unify these concepts.
The uselessness of trying to out-guess the nuclear physicists.
Philosophical considerations make us aware of a very large, but broadly acknowledged structure of reality, with a few speculative thoughts thrown-in, here and there.
The inter-change between matter and energy.
The cohesion of cosmic and sub-atomic forces.
An attempt to visualise the evolution of matter in generalised outlines.
Explanations, and the meaning of an explanation; statistical predictability.
The superiority of a predictability that is based upon an understanding of internal, causative mechanisms.
The need to work with a "given entity".
The characteristics of the electro-magnetic radiation as the basic "given" building block for our contemporary understanding.

It is time to summarise our ideas about oscillations. The principle idea is the constant oscillation of energy between a relatively stable state of open-ended or radiant propagation, proceeding at a, for us, characteristic speed of the electro-magnetic wave-front, and, a variety of orbiting, rotatory energy-forms with an ever increasing complexity and density. We still know little about the way matter is built-up from elementary orbital energy-forms, and, we are not yet clear in our concepts about the evolution of matter particles. We have speculated upon the nature of gravitational attraction, and, we introduced a concept, where we postulate the existence of an electro-magnetic grid with a random interference-pattern. We have postulated, also, the possibility, that orbiting or locked-up energy-forms require a constant supply of a suitable form of energy, supplied from the surrounding electro-magnetic force-fields, and, we have offered the idea, that such a constant influx of a special, sustaining form of energy may be an explanation for the force of gravitational attraction.

We have also introduced the idea, that the existence and stability of an electro-magnetic wave-front may be gradually weakened, as time goes by, because of an interference or inter-action with the electro-magnetic grid. These ideas are speculative, but they may serve as a useful starting point, when trying to form a comprehensive view of all existence and all physical phenomena, as seen from our particular frame of existence. As a corollary, we have explored the ideas behind the descriptions or observations of many phenomena, especially, when seen in different frames of reference, and, we have discussed some of the alterations in perception that take place, when such reference-systems are moving in relation to each other.

At this time in the history and development of our conceptual imagery, we are not able to relate all the known forces, or the observed phenomena of varying force-fields, into a single, cohesive framework of explanatory relationships. There are strong and weak force-fields, playing a role in the cohesion of atomic nuclei, and, we know of electro-magnetic forces acting at the level of inter-actions between electrons and the atomic nucleus, as well as in the existence possibilites of the electro-magnetic wave-form itself. Lastly, there are these mysterious forces connected with the phenomena of gravity, mass and inertia.

We should try, purely as a speculative excercise, to develop some ideas that may make it possible, or, even, plausible to bring all these forces into a cohesive framework of inter-relationships. However, if we would make such an effort in the sense of trying to describe, precisely, a series of transitions between the various states of matter and energy, (such as the decay of particles under natural conditions of instability, or, the many fragments of debris that can be observed in high-energy collisions of an experimental nature), we would only try to out-guess the professional nuclear physicists, and, it is highly unlikely that anyone who is unskilled in the quantitative formulation of energy-transients, could do this successfully. It would be highly unlikely, that such an individual could formulate an intuitively grasped cohesion that would be convincing to those, who spend a life-time pondering the precise relationships between various energy-states.

Yielding to the temption to try to out-guess the specifics of a specialised area of concern or science, such as the field of nuclear or intra-nuclear inter-actions, would be contrary to the aims and use of a philosophical consideration or generalisation, where we try to make use of broad areas of agreed-upon concepts and relationships, and throw-in a few speculative thoughts of our own. We are, therefore, not going to formulate a precise cause-effect structure for these forces and events, which are taking place at a sub-atomic level. In stead, we are going to make an attempt to fit the broad, overall picture of current concepts with other generalisations that are considered valid by other groups of scientific thinkers, but, which do not necessarily lie within the focus of attention of the nuclear physicist.

It seems to me, that there are two major areas of concern that may lend themselves to such a broad and generalised integration of ideas. The first area is the concept, that matter and energy are interchangeable, and, that they represent only two sides of the same, elusive entity; the basic building-block of all existence. Energy may be existing in a radiant form, propagated at the characteristic speed of light, when seen from our particular vantage-point, and, it may form increasingly complex inertial systems, or orbiting, oscillating forms of locked-up energy existence, which we call "matter", and, which are subjected to this elusive force; the mutual attraction of all matter by the forces of gravitation.

The other area of generalised interest, is the idea, or concept, that there ought to be a cohesion or orderly transformation between the various aspects of force, especially, when we try to relate the forces that operate on a cosmic or a macroscopic scale, (such as the electro-magnetic and gravitational forces), with the very limited range of the strong and weak intra-nuclear forces. Let us try, therefore, to trace an overall picture that lets us follow the evolution of matter from energy, and, let us try to trace the forces at work; from the cosmic and macroscopic arena, to the ultra-structural dimensions of the atom. Let us try to sketch an outline without an effort to fit-in all known, specific details about sub-atomic particles. Finally, let us again integrate these speculative images in the light of relativistic concepts, and, let us try to answer some of the questions we may have about the limitation of insights.

Every explanation of a phenomenon, observation or event, means, that we are assigning to it a certain cause-effect relationship. We dissolve the event into a series of smaller, inter-locking events, and, by doing so, we gain the impression, that we have grasped the internal mechanisms of such an event. This impression is strongly re-enforced, if we become able to predict the course of an on-going event by the extra-polation of its internal mechanisms, but, as we have argued before, we may also grasp or predict the course of a periodic event with the help of a statistical analysis. In the latter case, all we can do is to rely upon an observed regularity and predict its recurrence on the basis of such an observed periodicity.

If we analyse, successfully, an event in mechanistic or dynamic cause-effect relationships, we will, not only, be able to predict or sketch the continuation of an on-going event, but, we may, also, with varying degrees of success, predict changes in the future of an on-going event on the basis of changes taking place in a constellation of causative mechanisms. It is important to realise, however, that we only shift the level of understanding of an event from the level of the original observation to the level of the explanation, where we work with a series of smaller, conceptual building-blocks as "given" entities. We all know, that we can always ask the question "why", but, we also know, that this question becomes meaningless, or has to be answered by "unknown", if the individual components of a dynamic explanation can not themselves be dissolved into causative mechanisms.

It is logical, therefore, that, in every explanation, including the attempt to search for the fundamental units of matter and energy, we have to work with a basic unit of "given constants" which is used as the building-block for all other observations and mechanisms of explanation. The basic building-block itself is, however, at the time of explanation, immune to a further analysis.

Historically, we see many attempts to find such elementary building-blocks, and, we see, at the present time, that we are searching hard for the fundamental elements that constitute the essence of existence, and, which bridge the apparent distinction between matter and energy. It seems, therefore, logical to take the electro-magnetic wave-form, or, rather, the un-understood relationships between electro-static and electro-magnetic fluxes, as the basis for our attempts to build-up such a dynamic interpretation of matter and energy, especially, as we experience and observe these phenomena in our particular system of reference.

Therefore, we will not ask the question, why electro-static and electro-magnetic fluxes inter-lock the way we experience them to do, but, we will try to relate every other phenomenon to this electro-magnetic inter-action, and, we will try to do this in overall terms only, leaving specific and detailed relationships of many intermediary forms of particle existence to the nuclear scientists.

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Chapter 19

Content

The electro-magnetic wave-front, visited, once again.
The essential identity between the two right-angle planes of oscillation.
The "helicity" or "direction of turning" of the electro-magnetic wave-front; clockwise or counter-clockwise.
The right-handed or left-handed "cork-screw".
The macroscopic examples of the phenomena in a transformer; vector relationships between the direction of current and the magnetic orientation.
The spiraling magnetic lines of force.
The "planes" of an electro-magnetic vibration, seen not as "flat" planes, but as planes with a tendency to close into a circle, spiral or tube.
The imagery of a photon "falling upon or enclosing itself" around its magnetic or electro-static components.
The link of this image with the imagery of an electron.
The problem of existing conditions of asymmetry in nature.
Helical symmetry; electron and anti-electron or positron.
Magnetic contraction; the magnetic monopole.
The asymmetry in existence, or distribution, of matter and anti-matter.
The electron, seen as a point-source of electro-static charge, spinning around its magnetic axis.
The equivalent picture of a magnetic monopole, spinning around its electro-static axis, which is aligned with the electro-static field between the nucleus and the "magnetic monopoles".
An arbitrary assignment of names.

Looking, once more, at the electro-magnetic wave-front as I see it, the characteristics are unexplained, and, they seem to include a vibration, alternating between two planes that exist at right angles to each other. We assume, that these two planes are, in essence, symmetrical and identical in nature, in spite of the fact, that one plane of the force-field has been called "electric" and the other "magnetic". Even, if there is no essential difference between the electric and the magnetic force-fields when existing in the radiant energy-forms, we will, probably, have to visualise some kind of a "helicity" in their inter-actions, which means, that they may oscillate in a right-handed or left-handed "cork-screw motion". We will elaborate these images a little more, but, let us not forget that this imagery is rather speculative.

We have discussed the idea, that the vibration in one plane does induce a vibration at a right-angle differential in the other plane. This mutual induction may take place with a right-handed or left-handed rotation. If we visualise a magnetic field of straight, parallel lines, which is changing in strength, we see that the force exerted on an electrically charged particle, runs at right angles to this magnetic field, but, at the same time, there is a tendency for such an electro-static charge to move in a circle or a spiral.

The practical example of this principle is the induction of a secondary current in a transformer, where the magnetic flux changes continuously because of an alternating current flowing through the primary windings. The opposite is true also; if we observe the magnetic induction-lines around a current-flow in a straight wire. Then, we see, that the magnetic lines spiral or circle around the straight conductor in a plane that lies at right angles to this wire.

We see also a definite vector relationship; a flow of negative charge in a particular direction causes a spiraling line of magnetic induction with a helicity in a certain direction, and, consequently, a current flowing in the opposite direction, will change the polarity of the magnetic lines of force; it reverses the helicity of the spiraling lines of magnetic force, and, therefore, it brings-about a reversal of the North and South poles associated with such a field.

We may conclude, that the mutually oscillating vibrations between the two fields of an electro-magnetic wave-front, should have a rotatory component. The planes are not really "flat", but, they have a tendency to close into a circle, spiral or tube. What conclusions may we draw from such an imagery of the electro-magnetic wave-front? We have seen, that the origin of an electro-magnetic vibration is associated with the origin of an identical, but mirror-photon or vibration, speeding with the velocity of light into the opposite direction; an imagery, that has led to the concept of a photon and an anti-photon, as well as the general idea, that, most, if not all particles of matter-energy may have mirror images or anti-particles.

If each vibrational component has indeed a tendency to close-in on itself, (which may be the logical conclusion from our ideas about magnetic and electro-static relationships), then, we may say, that it is possible for each photon to "fall upon or enclose itself", around its electro-static or magnetic component. If the photon closes around its electro-static field, the photon changes to a point-charge with a spin, since the momentum and energy-content remains preserved, at least, to some extent, in such a rapid spin. At the same time, the magnetic vibration becomes an empty line of force, extending through the poles of the spinning photon and does not appear to contain any energy. It is tempting to see in such a model the origin of an electron, but, it is likely that the electron is a more complex structure than a single, curled-up photon.

There is a serious difficulty with this imagery, however, because we see in our world only negative electrons as orbiting particles of atomic nuclei, but, in the essential symmetry of nature, we have to visualise negative as well as positive electrons or elementary rotatory particles, depending upon the helicity of the photon, or the spin of the electron rotation. In addition, the electro-magnetic vibration could just as well have enclosed around itself in such a way, that the magnetic field would become a point charge or "mono-pole", with the electro-static line of force extending through the poles of the spinning particle. We do not seem to see such an elementary "magnetic monopole", and, this may point to the essential symmetry of the two electro-magnetic fields of induction. It may well be, that enclosure around either field gives the impression of a point source of electric charge for the "full" and spinning field, while the empty field behaves like an empty line of magnetic force.

However, we should consider the possiblity that we may not observe nature from a symmetrical position. Actually, we are quite sure that our part of the Universe contains more matter than anti-matter, and, we have discussed, before, the reasons, why it is likely that the evolution of matter took place in such a way, that matter and anti-matter became widely separated.

Let us go back, for a moment to the electron, and let us relinquish, for a moment, the assumption that both fields of electro-magnetic force are completely identical. We may consider this electron as a particle spinning around its magnetic axis and contracting its electro-static field into a spinning point-source of energy. This is the "regular electron". If the particle would have contracted around its magnetic axis and be spinning around its electro-static axis, the magnetic field would be the point-source of charge, and the electro-static axis would be a line of force. Such a particle would spin around an axis that has aligned itself with the electro-static field between the positive nucleus and the neutral or magnetic electron, because it is now the dipole of electro-static attraction which has to counter-act the centrifugal force of the magnetic electron.

The "negative" line of force, which acts as the axis of spin for this particle with a magnetic point-source of charge, forms a line of attraction towards the positive nucleus, and it is the only force that counter-balances the centrifugal inertia of the magnetic monopole, because there is no attraction between the magnetic monopole and the electro-statically positive nucleus. It is unlikely, therefore, that such a particle could be firmly bound to a positive nucleus.

Whatever the exact mechanisms are, it seems reasonable to visualise the electron as an entity that oscillates between a state of "particle-hood" and an electro-magnetic vibration, as we saw, when we discussed the principle of uncertainty. There is, indeed, no reason to believe, that the "particle-phase" will always be a contraction of the electro-static component into a point-source of charge with a magnetic axis of spin. The particle may materialise itself just as often the other way; as a magnetically charged monopole and an electrostatic axis of spin. However, if this happens within the confines of an orbit around an atomic nucleus, it may well be, that its appearance will be a point-source of electro-static charge with a magnetic line of force, regardless, which of the fields of the electro-magnetic wave has been contracted into a point source of energy.

The purpose of this speculative excercise, is to show the likelyhood of a greater degree of symmetry in the forms of existence than we generally recognise, and, the other purpose is to show, or, to make it plausible, that the electro-static and magnetic force-fields of an electro-magnetic vibration, are, in essence, identical in nature. This means, that we have to recognise the arbitrary designation of the labels or names, because these names have been given to these phenomena during the course of the historical development of insights and concepts, and, they may reflect out-moded or erroneous ideas, which were prevalent at the time these names came into general use.

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sa024g

Chapter 20

Content

The aspect of "asymmetry" in the world of matter-energy.
Evolutionary mechanisms as a cause for a secondary asymmetry.
The inter-locking of particles that are mirror-images or anti-particles to each other.
The collision of "mirror-photons" and their decay into elementary particles.
The possibility of a "near-miss".
Counter-balancing the tendency to annihilate each other with a strong, energetic angular momentum of spinning around each other.
The image of the meson as a spinning quark-antiquark complex.
The "contraction" of a photon around the electric or magnetic plane, and a helicity in a clock-wise or anti-clockwise direction, giving rise to four basic ways to form an elementary particle.
The build-up of inter-locking pairs, either as particle-antiparticle complexes, or, as particles attracted to each other by a magnetic or electro-static opposite.
Heavy and light particles, where the "heavy" particles are those, whose entire energy-content is contained in the angular momentum of their spin.
Two spinning tops, pointing towards each other, and spinning in opposite directions, rotating through an axis that is perpendicular to their aligned axes.
Further images about possible combinations of spin and rotation.

It seems reasonable to come to the conclusion, that our natural environment of matter and energy shows a remarkable asymmetry; electrons are always point-charges, revolving around a magnetic axis, and we do not seem to encounter any magnetic monopoles revolving around their electro-static axes. However, it is likely, that, in the primordial creation of elementary particles, no such asymmetry existed, and, we may have to look at possible evolutionary patterns of the nucleus, in order to see a rationale for the existence of our particular asymmetry.

So far, we have explored the idea, that the formation of an elementary particle could be explained by its contraction of the electro-static or electro-magnetic field of force, or, by the inter-locking around either one of the axes of attraction, but, we may also see another form of inter-locking, which is, probably, less speculative. If two photons, mirror-images of each other, collide, we have developed an imagery of instability of their existence, because of the cancellation of their momenta, leading to the decay of such a "virtual" photon into a series of elementary particles.

It should be possible for two such particles, which are anti-particles to each other, to come close enough to "feel" the tendency towards annihilation upon actual contact, but, their existence could be stabilised, if their mutually attracting forces are counter-balanced by the angular momentum of their rotational energy. In other words, if they could be locked into a form, whereby they rotate extremely rapidly around each other, then, we would have an elementary particle, perhaps, even, a rather heavy one, containing a significant amount of energy locked into the rotatory momentum of its existence as a particle-antiparticle complex.

Such a picture seems to have been developed by the nuclear scientists in their concepts about the quark and anti-quark, which form together the "meson". However, let us acknowledge, that we do not have a clear idea about the nature of this mutually attractive axis, because one would expect, that, a near-collision between a particle and its mirror-image would lead to a tendency to scatter, rather than be attracted to each other.

Perhaps, we can refine the imagery somewhat. A photon or electro-magnetic quantum can contract either around its electro-static or around its electro-magnetic axis, leaving the other plane of energy-existence as a line of force, while the contracted plane contains all the energy, whirling around the axis of an empty line of force. A photon exists, only, together with the creation of a symmetrical mirror-image or anti-photon, which can undergo the same transformations. A photon has a "vector"; a direction of travel in relation to its antiphoton, and, it has also a certain "helicity" or rotatory component of the magnetic and electro-static inter-actions. This rotatory component determines, perhaps, the direction of its spin, after it contracts around one of its axes.

Similarly, the anti-photon can also contract around its magnetic or electro-static axis. This gives us four basic rotational forms of existence. The photon as well as the anti-photon can contract into a point-source of existence, and, each of these point-sources of existence can again have a spin into opposite directions, but, because a double reversal cancels itself, we see four pairs of particles, where each pair is, in essence, identical to its partner.

If we consider the rotational inter-locking of a photon and anti-photon, without the contraction into a whirling point-source of energy, we see an orbital form of energy without a point-charge. It becomes more difficult to visualise, how these anti-particles rotate around each other, unless we visualise them to rotate around each other with their axes aligned, pointing towards each other, so that they form a mutually attracting dipole. We may see two spinning tops, the spins being opposite to each other, and the points of the tops pointing towards each other, as they rotate around each other in an axis that is perpendicular to the aligned axes.

We may, again, visualise a symmetry, since the spin of the entire complex may have an opposite counter-part. All the pairs of anti-particles may, therefore, form dipoles, spinning around each other, but with opposite directions of spin, so that a collision between mirror-images of "heavy" particles, (formed from inter-locked particle-antiparticles), results, again, in the cancelation of a momentum of energy, leading to instability. These spinning dipoles do not exhibit charge, since the point-charges are spinning around each other, showing a neutral appearance when seen from an outside plane of reference.

We may, again, visualise a further build-up as two anti-particles of the "heavy type", (each comprised of spinning dipoles), as they inter-lock rather than annihilate each other, provided, they can find a measure of stability when doing so. However, the imagery gets too complex and confusing, if we continue this line of thought. Let us summarise by saying, that, near-collisions between particles and anti-particles may result in a spinning dipole, rather than a process of annihilation. Such a dipole of particle and anti-particle has a large energy-content, and corresponds, perhaps, with the concept of a "heavy" elementary particle as we see in the imagery of nuclear physics.

From the basic idea of particle-antiparticle inter-locking, we can build-up a series of possibilities of existence and symmetry, where, once again, such "heavy" di-poles can become anti-particles to each other, which can, either result in an annihilation of each other, or, may lead to an even more complex particle by a process of "second generation" matter-antimatter inter-locking.

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Chapter 21

Content

The electrical neutrality of particle-antiparticle complexes.
The strong binding force of particle-antiparticle attraction.
A comparison between the phenomenon of temperature and fractional energy losses, caused by an interference from the electro-magnetic grid.
The impossibility of reaching absolute zero degrees Kelvin because of the ubiquitous presence of thermal energy.
No evidence for the internal slowing of rotatory complexes due to a lack of "consumable energy".
The identity between the force of gravitation and the "environmental" pressures caused by a local lowering of the energy-level of the magnetic grid; the image of a "funnel", or vortex, and the continuous energy-consumption by matter.
The drifting-together of particles without charge.
The nearly completely submerged object floating at sea.
A large eddy, and the accumulation of such large, submerged objects.
The galactic proportions of such an accumulation of electro-statically or magnetically neutral particles.
The gradual increase in gravitational pressures, relative to the total mass of particles that have drifted together.

We have discussed the idea, that a particle-antiparticle complex is, probably, neutral in "charge", indicating, that it does not show a point-source of charge, either in the electro-static or the magnetic component. It becomes somewhat difficult to imagine, how such dipoles form without a magnetic or electro-static axis. If such anti-particles come very close, there may be a tremendous force attracting these particles to each other as a preliminary stage in the process of mutual annihilation. This attractive force becomes, then, the "axis" of alignment, but, perhaps, this axis is not bound to any specific geographical region of the particle. It is counter-balanced by the enormously rapid spin or angular momentum of this complex particle, and, we see, here, a much more force-ful mechanism of attraction and binding than we saw in the electro-magnetic binding forces between charged elementary particles.

It is likely, that these heavy elementary particles are just as susceptible to the "friction", or fractional energy losses from the interference with the electro-magnetic grid, as the particles we discussed before, in spite of the fact, that these particles may not show any charge on the outside. In case this idea still creates an emotional reaction of incredulous resistance to the invitation to consider such an idea seriously, let us compare this concept, once again, with the phenomenon of thermal agitation.

From classical physics, we know, that the atomic and molecular vibrations will slowly run-down, unless a continuous influx of electro-magnetic energy prevents such a slow-down of their oscillations. In other words, any matter, wherever in space, will slowly reach a complete zero temperature, an absolute zero degrees Kelvin, unless it is able to absorb some electro-magnetic energy. Since this energy is so abundantly available, it has remained impossible, even, under stringent experimental conditions, to shield any form of matter so completely from this surrounding thermal energy-field, that absolute zero degrees Kelvin has not been reached, even, if we have come close.

Why would such a loss of temperature or loss of kinetic energy of the atomic and molecular configurations occur, unless the atomic and molecular vibrations or oscillations encounter some sort of resistance or interference from the surrounding electro-magnetic grid? If such a phenomenon occurs for the vibrational existence of large complexes, why would it not be possible to visualise an analogous situation for the internal components or internal organisation and vibrational states of electrons, nucleons, mesons, etc.? These relationships could also be subjected to a slowing-down, and, eventual instability, unless a constant absorption of energy would sustain them, and, similarly, some kind of interference or energy-loss in the form of inter-actions with the random electro-magnetic force-field, could justifiably be postulated.

It is true, that we have no evidence that matter gives-off any other energy than the loss of heat, or random electro-magnetic radiation, but, once we start looking at gravitational attraction as the result of such an energy-flux, we may, eventually, detect a random type of interference or inter-action with this ubiquitous electro-magnetic grid of randomly varying potentials, and, we may, eventually, detect the existence of an energy-flux from matter to the surrounding grid as evidence for a fractional, frictional loss of energy into space.

Elaborating on this hypothesis, we may come to the conclusion, that gravitational forces are identical to those "environmental pressures" from the grid, which drive these elementary particles together, in particular, those, which do not exhibit any external evidence of electrical charge or magnetic potential. Particles with charge will be subject to the locally far more powerful electro-magnetic fluxes of the space-grid, which occur in the immediate environment. We may compare the situation to a very large, almost completely submerged object, floating in a large body of water; the sea. Small wind-pressures and ripples on the surface of the sea will have no or little influence upon the overall behaviour of this large object, but a slow, almost imperceptible current of the surrounding waters, will sweep this large object along without any difficulties. Such heavy objects will, eventually, collect at the center of a large eddy or vortex, and we may compare this gradual drifting-together of objects with a neutral charge under the influence of gravitational forces, with the currents in the sea, forming a large eddy and accumulating a large number of nearly submerged objects.

If the eddy would, somehow, have been the result of the accumulation of a large number of such submerged objects, we see, that it grows larger and larger, as more and more objects float together and coalesce in the center. Such eddies or vortices in space, resulting from the presence of matter aggregates, assume, eventually, galactic proportions, where, even, whole galaxies are slowly drifting together, locked into the rotational energy-balance between mutual gravitational attraction and the centrifugal force of their angular momenta. We see, then, that the force of gravitation is very small, when the mass of the matter particles involved is small, but, this force grows in direct proportion to the total mass of particles, as they collect at the center of a gravitational vortex.

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Chapter 22

Content

The periodic system of atomic elements, and their evolution inside stellar furnaces.
The probability, that, some of the lighter elements, such as hydrogen, are formed "in space", outside a stellar furnace.
The radical transformation of our world by secondary evolutionary processes.
Elementary particle-formation is, probably, still going-on in space, where there is a high concentration of radiant energy and a low level of gravitational disturbance.
Gravitational pressures and temperatures may convert matter into radiant energy-forms, but, this energy may also be absorbed into more complex nuclear formations.
Protons, neutrons, and the "glueing" action of mesons.
The proton or neutron as a product of "space"?
The "dressed" proton; neutral in charge because of the presence of an encircling electron.
The analogy with the "submerged" object, responding only to a slow gravitational contraction.
The internal structure of the proton.
Neutron-proton inter-actions.
The structure of the meson.
The meson as an elementary particle, created "in space"?
The remarkable stability of the neutron.

Let us, finally, speculate a little more about the formation of elementary particle complexes, which could take place in the early stages of particle-formation. We should not forget, that we see in the progression of the periodic system of atomic elements, the final results of many different stellar forging pressures, where ever larger orbital energy-complexes have been synthesised by the extreme pressures and temperatures of intra-stellar nuclear forges. These are secondary formations of matter, and, we have to account, first, for a sufficient collection of gravitationally sensitive matter particles, in order to make such extreme temperatures and gravitational pressures possible in the first place.

The question we should ask ourselves is the following; is all matter, as we know it, a result of these nuclear forging reactions within gigantic stars, (which existed in our region of the galaxy long before our solar system took shape), or, can we regard some of the lightest atomic elements such as hydrogen, to have been formed "in space"; without the need for massive gravitational force-fields?

The world of matter as we know it, now, is not at all the world of elementary particles which condensed out of electro-magnetic instability conditions. Our world of matter has been radically altered by secondary evolutionary processes, and, certainly, the heavier atomic elements are the products of such stellar nuclear reactions. However, there is good evidence to believe, that elementary particle-formation is still going-on, especially, in those regions of space, where there is a rather high radiant energy concentration and a low level of gravitational disturbances.

Such a picture would fit well with the basic concept, that, matter condenses from radiant energy in the deep emptiness of space, and, that radiant energy is liberated again, whenever pressures and temperatures become so high, that many orbital energy-forms become unstable. We know, now, that the high temperatures and pressures within gravitationally concentrated matter, can lead to a liberation of energy into radiant forms, but, this radiation-energy can also be absorbed, once again, into more complex orbital aggregates, resulting in a whole hierarchy of atomic elements with an increasing complexity of their nuclear configurations. Certainly, it seems logical to see the existence of all nuclei made-up of more than one proton, (a combination of protons and neutrons, glued together by a continuous and oscillating meson-exchange), as the result of such nuclear forging mechanisms.

However, is it reasonable to assume, that the single proton, or, perhaps, even, the neutron, could have been formed without massive gravitational contraction, together with the resulting pressures and temperatures? The answer will probably come, after we have learned more about the components that make-up the constellation of a proton or neutron. We know, that the neutron is not exhibiting any charge, and, that the proton is charged positively, but, we may also consider the "dressed" proton with its orbiting electron as a body without charge, and, therefore, even the more complex atomic nuclei with a neutralising shells of electrons are not showing any charge, in contrast to an "ion".

An atom is, therefore, subjected to gravitational forces only, and, it is not, any longer, tossed around by the fluctuating electro-magnetic grid; at least, not to the same extent, except for the absorption of "resonance-energy" internally, and "heat-energy" by the complex as a whole. Then, it has become a "submerged" object, responding to the currents of the energy-flux that constitutes the force of gravity, but, it does not respond, anymore, to violent and swift electro-magnetic potentials, in spite of the fact, that electro-magnetic forces play a role in the bonding between electrons and the nucleus.

Similarly, there is now good reason to believe, that the proton, (or, the neutron which is similar to the proton but is electrically neutral without the need for an orbiting electron), is composed, internally, of particles which are strongly inter-locked. It may well be, that a number of orbitally locked particle-antiparticles, as we have sketched in the concept of the dipole, may form a "star" of multiple rotating particles. These are locked together by forces that are partially electro-magnetic in nature, and, partially, by matter-antimatter binding forces; with an energy-content that is extremely large and requires a powerful angular momentum. As we have seen, the binding forces between matter-anti-matter particles may not be related to electro-magnetic axes, but, these binding forces may represent, solely, a balance between the "annihilation attraction" and the angular momentum, which tends to separate these mirror particles by their centrifugal inertia.

We have, now, also a few insights about neutron-proton inter-actions, and, we visualise these two relatively large and heavy bodies as being capable of exchanging another particle rapidly between them. This rapid exchange forms the bond of cohesion between them in the more complex atomic nuclei that have been forged within stellar interiors. This imagery seems to suggest, that protons and neutrons are bound together by the rapid exchange of a meson, and, it also suggests, that, neither the proton, nor the neutron, is stable within a nucleus that contains both particles. The energy needed to keep such a complex body or atomic nucleus together is locked-up in the continuous, rapid exchange or momentum of a meson, (or several mesons, depending on the number of protons and neutron within the atomic nucleus), orbiting or oscillating between the protons and neutrons within the nucleus.

Besides, we have, now, also a tentative concept of the meson itself, which seems to be a particle composed of a quark and an anti-quark. This suggests a similarity with the previously sketched, hypothetic possibility of an elementary particle formed by orbital inter-locking as an alternative to mutual annihilation. It seems reasonable to consider, at the present time, the bonding of neutrons and protons with the help of a meson-exchange, as a mechanism, that has been forged in the environment of a nuclear furnace. It may well be, however, that a particle like the meson could have come into existence as an example of photon-antiphoton inter-locking in space, and, it may, then, represent one of the earliest, stable particles exhibiting the characteristic of mass and charge-neutrality, making it a candidate for an early form of gravitational concentration.

Such a train of speculative thought would suggest that the kind of nuclear furnace we see in the sun, (the transition of hydrogen to helium), is not the first nuclear transformation in nature, and we may have to look for huge concentrations of even lighter particles, before we can witness the birth of a proton or neutron. It is certainly possible that the neutron or proton would have been able to form without massive gravitational contraction and high temperatures. The neutron seems to be susceptible to remarkable gravitational concentrations, and seems to be a more stable structure than the proton, where charge-neutrality is accomplished by the attraction of an electron. Indeed, our contemporary ideas about the most massive gravitational concentrations center around the concept of massive neutron stars, where all the surrounding electron shells have been stripped away, or compressed into the nucleus, by the gravitational force-fields.

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Chapter 23

Content

A rapid vibration of the magnetic line of force.
The "slow loop".
The strong and the weak bonds between particles.
A comparison with strong and weak intra-nuclear binding forces.
Balanced annihilation energies of heavier and lighter particles?
The intra-stellar furnace as a birth-place for many, if not most, of the complex matter-antimatter orbital energy-forms.
Intra-nuclear orbital sharing of "heavy" particles, compared to the sharing of electrons between atoms.
The massive energy-content of the nucleus, because of the large portion of matter-antimatter energy-content of its nucleons.
The contemporary problems of the quark or dyon theories.
A suggestion, why the ratio between the creation of heavy and light elementary particles is dependent upon available energy-levels.

There is another image we may explore. Let us visualise, for a moment, once again, the creation of a photon-antiphoton pair, originating from a powerful vibration of an electron as it spins around its magnetic axis. We may visualise such an axis as being shaken rapidly by the electron as it bounces up and down, shedding part of its energy-content as it is settling into a lower electron orbit. The electro-magnetic vibration, proceeding into either direction of the magnetic line of force, now carries a part of the energy-content of the electron, which is settling-down into a lower energy-level, on a lower orbital plane.

If the momentum of their propagation does not disrupt or transgress the lines of magnetic force, we could imagine both photons to be on a course that lets them make a "slow loop", and, they are then approaching each other, rather than speeding away from each other. They could annihilate each other as they collide, but a "near miss" may preserve their existence as a primary dipole of a matter-antimatter particle, as we have elaborated before. If the locking bond is due to a balance between annihilation-energy and angular momentum, we have a very strong bond, while a dipole formed between electrically or magnetically opposed axes, forms a much weaker bond. Perhaps, this classification into two very different categories of bonding has a counter-part in the two kinds of intra-nuclear forces that seem to exist within the atomic nucleus.

We know, now, that there are very strong bonding forces, but also, relatively weak bonding forces within the nucleus. Both are characterised by a very limited range. The speed of reaction of the strong bonding force is much faster than that of the weak force, and yet, it is likely, that both forces represent annihilation energies, rather than electro-magnetic energies as represented by opposing electro-magnetic force-fields. Perhaps, then, the strong nuclear forces are due to balanced annihilation energies of relatively heavy particles, while the weaker forces represent annihilation energies of more lightly built elementary particles.

If we look at the model of a spinning dipole, (which consists of two particles that are anti-particles to each other), we see, that the angular momentum equals the entire energy-content of the sum of these two particles. In a way, we can say, that the angular momentum is the only mechanism that prevents the annihilation from taking place, and, therefore, the binding force between such orbiting anti-particles must be gigantic. It is certainly tempting to see in this mechanism the essence of the strong, and, perhaps, the weak nuclear forces as well, in particular, since we see, now, more and more clearly, that the nucleons themselves are made-up of particle-antiparticle complexes.

Yet, the incidence of particle-antiparticle formation may be rare in outer space, and, it may be difficult to explain the dense concentrations of such complexes in the nuclei of all atomic elements. Again, we look for an explanation in the nuclear furnaces of space, as the evolution of atomic elements began in earnest. Perhaps, the very dense radiant energy-levels created by the extremely high pressures and temperatures within the core of a massive star, does create a large amount of particle-antiparticle combinations, because of the dense concentrations of photons and anti-photons, which have a difficult time escaping from the nuclear furnace.

A significant portion of this radiant energy becomes locked into extremely energetic orbital systems of particle-antiparticle dipoles with more complex configurations, resulting in "heavier" particles. Such dense concentrations of high-energy orbiting complexes may find possibilities of existence by weaving themselves into patterns with mutually shared orbits, somewhat analogous to the orbital sharing of electron-paths in the formation of molecular aggregates by a vartiety of chemical bonding mechanisms.

In contrast to an almost mass-less electron, orbiting at great distances and over large trajectories, intra-nuclear orbital sharing may take place by rather massive particles, such as mesons, which themselves may be composed of particle-antiparticle complexes. The attraction between the nucleus and the orbiting electrons, is, therefore, only a small fraction of the total energy-content contained by the electrons and the nucleus, while in the particle-antiparticle orbiting systems, the angular momenta and the centripetal forces contain the entire energy-content of the total mass that exists in such an orbital system.

Certainly, such ideas will require much refinement, before all questions and observations can be put-together into a cohesive relationship, but, it may be attractive to see, as a generalised principle, the strong and weak intra-nuclear forces as a form of "balanced annihilation energy", which will be, of course, less for the lighter particles than for the heavier ones.

One particular contemporary problem seems to be the fact, that this theory requires a fixed ratio in the formation of heavy and light particles, whenever annihilation processes take place. It is not clear to me, why such a conclusion is being drawn, but experimental evidence from nuclear experiments seems to indicate, that the ratio is not fixed, and, that the ratio depends on the level of energy that is available for the creation of such elementary particles.

As an aside, may I suggest, that such a ratio can change in favour of the heavier particles, if the energy-level of annihilation processes is high, because we see, then, an analogous situation within the nuclear furnace of a star. The enormously concentrated energy that exists, there, for a relatively long period of time, may create conditions that favour the secondary fusion of light particles into more complex and heavier particles, because this highly concentrated condition of high temperatures and presures, makes the lighter complexes relatively less stable than the heavier complexes. In other words; the more complex and heavier particle-antiparticle complexes are, the better they are able to "absorb" the energy-levels available, and, they are, therefore, preferentially created under such circumstances.

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Chapter 24

Content

Implications of this imagery for our existence as human beings.
A possible "end" to the search for the links between energy and matter.
The "slow" agreement between people, and the never-ending search for a "deeper" understanding.
The fallacy of a fatalistic approach to the problems of a "workable hypothesis".
The confusion between the essential un-knowability of an absolute reality and the ability to form a workable imagery out of chaotic reality perceptions.
The temptation to hide in the face of difficulties.
The fallacy of relying heavily upon mathematical virtuosity, without the ability to "visualise" what we postulate to be "a reality".
All knowledge will, eventually, be related to our needs.
The need to understand better the processes of human thought.
The fallacy of accepting the image of a single "Big Bang".
The oscillating Universe, and the multi-centricity of the processes of energy-conversion.
The essential "givenness" of electro-magnetic properties.
The need for "given constants".
The fallacy of the question; "where does energy come from?"

It seems fitting to end our discussion about oscillations with a few thoughts on the possible implications for our human existence. Once we have classified, with a measure of conviction, the transitional processes between radiant and orbital energy-forms, we may, indeed, have come to an "end", so far as the ever continuing search is concerned for the concepts about the ultimate building-blocks of matter. It is likely, however, that such a general agreement will come very slowly, and, it is also likely, that there will be many questions raised in search for a deeper, more precise understanding of the causative mechanisms in such transitional processes.

It is not likely, therefore, that we will abandon the search before we have come to a generally acceptable mental imagery of these processes. This, in spite of the fact, that the difficulties to accomplish such an agreement, will be enormous. Certain groups of scientific workers involved in the elucidation of these phenomena, have adopted a rather fatalistic approach; by coming to the conclusion that the ultimate reality will always be hidden from man. Such an opinion confuses the distinction between the essential un-knowability of an absolute reality with the need, as well as the possibility, to form a coherent mental imagery of the relationships we can perceive or imagine.

As long as there is no indication that a variety of phenomena can be grasped in an intellectually transparent framework of relationships, man has always tried to hide behind the belief, or the assumption, that there exists an essential and impenetrable inscrutability, but, one of the remarkable aspects of modern science has been the success, as well as far-reaching mastery, which came-about, when man dropped such excuses and assumptions in the face of great intellectual and existential difficulties.

Even the fact, that there is an inevitable inter-action between the phenomena studied and the tools of investigation we have to make use of, does not preclude the possibility to develop, eventually, a coherent thought-structure, which would "seem to explain" it all by logical relationships, together with the fruits of predictability and manipulability. We have seen, that such an intellectual development, (where we see this essential combination of a logical structure of explanations and an increased manipulative predictability), is not in any way indicative of an absolute reality, and, that it constitutes, only, a useful and, perhaps, durable way of ordening our concepts and ideas.

Rather than coming to the conclusion, that our material or structural realities will always be an ever-receding field of layers upon layers of existence, we could, eventually, agree amongst ourselves, that the bridge between radiant and orbital energy-forms is coming within view. Certainly, we should not come to such unworkable concepts as those embodying an arbitrary number of dimensions of existence, just because our mathematical virtuosity has given us the tools to manipulate such a multi-dimensional system with relative ease.

In the end, we will relate all knowledge and understanding to questions of collective needs and individual significance, as we learn to understand, better, the origin, purpose and limitations of our human thought processes, together with their powers of abstraction, generalisation and classification. Just as we will see, rather clearly, at some time in the near future, how the transformations from radiant energy to orbital or matter-energy come-about, so will we develop, also, a clearer picture of the various cosmic processes, where orbital energy returns, eventually, to a state of radiant energy, after it has gone through an evolutionary process, where more and more complex forms of orbital existence have been forged in nuclear transformations.

We should not accept, superficially, the notion, that all radiant energy started with one single, gigantic explosion or Big Bang, since we see in all stellar fires the transition from orbital to radiant energy. It may be justified to say, that there is, indeed, an oscillation; a general periodicity, where, at some time within the cosmic time-scale of existence, the cosmos may seem to exist, predominantly, in a radiating or expanding energy-form, to be alternated with periods of cosmic contraction and gigantic conglomerations of orbital energy-forms, leading to unbelievably large centers of nuclear furnaces, where radiant energy is produced at a fantastic rate, and, where pressures and temperatures exist, that are, for the time being, beyond our conceptual grasp.

It is obvious, that in such a description of conceptual cohesion, we have assumed the existence of the electro-magnetic oscillation as the basic constant. The nature and origin of the characteristics of the electro-magnetic inter-actions between these two fields of force, are not explained at this time and stage of our understanding of reality, and, they are, therefore, considered as "given". Perhaps, the development of human inquiry will lead, in the future, to a more cohesive structure of ideas, which "explains" the existence and operation of electro-magnetic mechanism in terms of other and more detailed components, but, it remains philosophically essential to have some sort of a "given structure" from where we can start our explanatory sequences. We have to build an image of reality upon a given foundation of existence; otherwise, we will have to explain where energy came from. How can something come from nothing?

While such a question may reflect perfectly legitimate human expectations, (where phenomena may be analysed in cause-effect relationships without invoking considerations of a strict energy-balance), one of the fundamental "given constants" we have learned to appreciate in our scientific inquiries, is the existence of a rigid energy-balance. Often, this energy-balance appears to be violated by the phenomena we observe, but, on many occasions, the tenacious belief in the essential correctness of this energy balance has led to intuitive but fruitful insights, and the usefulness of such insights has been proven, over and over again, by predictive and manipulative dexterity.

Where does energy come from? The question, therefore, remains fallacious, because it implies a violation of the energy-balance. If energy was not always there, in one form or another, it could not exist today. The implications of a religious explanation for, essentially, the same question, "where God came from", have been pursued elsewhere.

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sa024s

Summary

1. Oscillatory forms of existence; definition and characteristics.
   Matter; seen as an oscillating form of energy.
   Examples of oscillatory phenomena; dampened and undampened oscillations.
   The world of sub-atomic existence.
   The swinging oscillations of the pendulum; ellipsoid and circular movements.
   Oscillations in a spatially enclosed system, and the open-ended wave-front, traveling at a uniform speed.
   The transfer of energy along a wave-front.
   
   
   
   
2. The electro-magnetic wave-front; light.
   Varying wave-lengths.
   Waves and particles.
   The constancy of the speed of light.
   The wave and its "medium".
   The nature of electro-static and electro-magnetic force-fields.
   Magnetism.
   The flow of electrons through a conductor.
   The relationships between electro-static and electro-magnetic phenomena.
   Quantitative manipulation became possible before qualitative understanding.
   
   
   
   
3. Photon; concept and definition; relationships with the electro-magnetic wave-front.
   Electron-positron collision; the labile existence of the "spin-less" or "virtual" electron.
   The photon as a "wave-packet"; mirror images.
   Fluctuating force-fields, resulting from mutually induced electro-static and magneto-motive force-fields.
   The "virtual photon", or the "speed-less" wave-packet.
   The creation of orbital energy forms; elementary particles.
   The essential similarity between a virtual photon and virtual electron; instability, a lack of momentum.
   Transitions between open and closed oscillations.
   The decay of an electron orbit around a nucleus.
   The dissipation of excess energy by a rapid oscillation of the electron
   The creation of a photon.
   Orbital movements of electrons on a large scale.
   The magneto-motive force, the transformation of voltages.
   Similarities between large-scale and small-scale oscillations of electrons.
   
   
   
   
4. The electron; a point-source of charge, or, an electro-magnetic wave-packet.
   Changing appearances.
   Electron-spin and electro-magnetic resonance.
   The inter-actions between apparent results and the investigating instrumentation.
   The concept of "uncertainty", when determining the characteristics of an electron.
   A change in energy-content; absorption or dissipation of energy by an orbiting electron.
   The energy and frequency of an electro-magnetic wave-front, and the ability to be absorbed by an orbiting electron.
   Orbital characteristic of the electron are determined by the nucleus.
   The identification of an atomic nucleus by the absorption characteristics of its encircling electrons.
   Absorption and emission spectra of visible light.
   The play of mental images.
   
   
   
   
5. The orbiting electron and the flow of electrons in a coiled conductor.
   The emergence of a magnetic line of force at right angles to the orbital plane as North and South poles, depending upon the direction of the orbiting electron.
   The relationships between the strength of a current in a coiled conductor, and the strength of the magneto-motive force-field, or magnetic field.
   Parallel planes of electrons orbiting around a nucleus.
   Natural magnetism; the ability of a large number of atoms to orient themselves in such a way that their electron shells are all in the same plane.
   The effects of an electron moving across an existing magnetic field.
   The tendency of the electron to make a circular movement at right angles to the magnetic force-field.
   The imagery of a multi-layered, tubular magnetic force-field; the path of least resistance.
   The magnetic line of force, created by the axial spin of the electron and by its rotation around the nucleus.
   Possible conceptual links between the electron as a particle, and, as a wave-form.
   The essential, unexplained nature of electro-static and magnetic force-fields.
   Relating sub-atomic phenomena with large-scale, macroscopic phenomena; electro-motors, transformers and generators, seen with a sub-atomic imagery.
   Over-crowded electron shells in a conductor.
   The displacement of orbiting electrons by electro-static pressures; the path of least resistance.
   The correlation between the imagery of "jumping" electron orbits, and the phenomena of magneto-motive induction.
   The alignment of electron shells in a conductor with a "current".
   The alignment of magneto-motive lines of force.
   A comparison between alignment in a natural magnet and alignment under the influence of an electric current.
   Relationships between the degree of alignment and the strength of the electric current through a conductor.
   
   
   
   
6. The mechanisms of a magnetically induced voltage potential or current.
   The alignment of electron shells.
   The turning momentum, or "torque", excercised upon electron orbits.
   The induced voltage as a function of the rate of change in the magnetic field.
   The phase-differential between the currents in the primary and secondary windings of a transformer.
   The transformation of voltage and current.
   The change from a coiled to a straight conductor; the antenna.
   The radiation of an electro-magnetic wave-front.
   Resistence in a medium with a rapidly alternating deformation of this medium.
   The "stickiness" of the medium.
   What is the medium of an electro-magnetic wave-front in space?
   The bouncing electron and the dissipation of excess energy during orbital decay.
   Carrying away energy with electro-magnetic radiation.
   General and special relativity.
   The constant and finite speed of light.
   The problems of equating mass and inertia; multi-dimensional space and the space-time continuum.
   The electro-magnetic medium as a ubiquitous grid of potentials?
   The "quantum", as it relates to an orbital shift.
   The beauty and the problems associated with our search for symmetry and logical mathematical extra-polations.
   The unilateral direction of time, and, the unilateral direction of events; from a higher to a lower energy content.
   The need for caution in accepting the reality of mathematical predictions, descriptions and extra-polations.
   The oscillating Universe.
   
   
   
   
7. Energy-flow, and the fueling of reactions that absorb energy.
   The sun and its photons.
   Energy requirements and chemical reactions.
   Photo-synthesis and the animals; predation.
   Homo Sapiens, and his abilities to harnass energy.
   The industrial development.
   Solar energy as the source of most energy-forms that can be consumed by man.
   Increasing complexity of life-forms, and the apparent violation of thermo-dynamic principles.
   The life-form as a channel to dissipate captured solar energy.
   The problem of "stability".
   Electro-magnetic properties as the fundamental corner-stone of all existence.
   No absolute stability of either the radiant or the orbital energy-forms.
   The oscillating Universe.
   
   
   
   
8. Stability is characterised by speed and spin.
   The deterioration of the stability of a radiant quantum of energy.
   The electro-magnetic grid.
   Inter-actions between grid and quantum; fractional losses and harmonic boosts.
   The process of inter-locking.
   The more familiar transition of orbital energy into radiant energy.
   What are the mechanisms of gravity?
   
   
   
   
9. Speculations about the mechanisms of gravitational attraction.
   The formation of a "hypothetical" elementary particle.
   The "Brownian movements" of an elementary particle in space.
   The short life-span of such a particle in a wild "sea" of electro-magnetic disturbances.
   Particles with opposite spin; the mechanisms of collision and mutual annihilation.
   The absorption of vibrational energy by spinning particles.
   The vortex around an orbital matter-particle.
   The fusion of vortices spinning in the same direction.
   The tendency for these vortices to cluster together.
   A foundation for the forces of gravitational attraction?

   
   
   
   

10. The fusion of vortices of elementary particles or spinning di-poles.
    A rapid exploration of numerous possibilities of existence in this vast, primordial sea of inorganic material evolution.
    Stability at the level of the hydrogen atom.
    The evolution of heavier elements in the nuclear furnace of large stars.
    The preponderance of one form of matter or another.
    The predilection of materialisation in a particular direction of spin.
    The separation of matter and anti-matter.
    The suppression of the opposite form of matter-energy.
    Anti-matter, hidden inside nucleons or nuclei, and transiently existing during nuclear disintegration processes.
    Re-examining the conditions necessary for elementary particle formation.
    Re-examining our ideas about the nature of gravity.
    The transient existence of a monster-wave or "freak" wave.
    Rapid fusion of vortices and elementary particles; a search for stability.
    Stability and reversibility; common examples.
    The assumption of complete stability for "normally" existing matter.
    The strange suggestion, that matter may require a constant source of energy in order to remain stable in its existence.
    
    
    
    
11. The origins of ideas and concepts.
    Another look at the electro-magnetic grid.
    Complex interference-patterns and randomly fluctuating energy potentials.
    A point-source of existence "at rest".
    The surfing boat on a seemingly stationary mound of water.
    The head-on collision with waves coming from opposite directions.
    The constancy of the net-capture of energy.
    A refinement of the imagery by seeing waves coming from all directions.
    Preferential energy-capture from certain directions.
    Energy-capture as an expression of the intrinsic energy-capturing capabilities of the point-source of existence, times the squared velocity of light.
    The equation between the concept of "energy-capture" and those of mass and inertia.
    The energy- or tension-gradients between the electro-magnetic grid and the point-source of existence.
    Elementary particles, seen as energy quanta that are not able to respond, at the speed of light, to the variations of the energy-potentials of the electro-magnetic grid.
    The "excitation" of an elementary particle by the absorption of resonant energy; violent movements on the electro-magnetic sea, and a possible "break-up".
    Continuous stress between particle and grid, as the particle is unable to follow the fluctuations with perfect and effortless fidelity.
    Slowness of response to these fluctuations as a basis for the concept of "inertia".
    The relief of internal stress by the slow dissipation of surplus energy.
    
    
    
    
12. The absorption of "exciting" or resonant energies by an elementary particle.
    The slow dissipation of electro-magnetic energy as the particle returns to a "normal state".
    The concept of "friction" between the electro-magnetic field of an elementary particle and the surrounding electro-magnetic grid.
    The tendency for orbital frequencies to "slow-down".
    Questioning the "closed" concept of material existence.
    Theoretical possibilities for "instability" due to a loss of orbital momentum; no evidence for this concept in contemporary reality.
    Quanta; necessary in the absorption and emission of energy by electrons, but, perhaps, not necessary in the fractional, random dissipation processes such as heat-transfer.
    The phenomena of temperature and heat-loss.
    The similarities between heat-loss and the loss of orbital momentum.
    Continuous replenishment of such a loss of momentum by the absorption of suitable resonance frequencies, balancing the continuous frictional losses.
    The continuing "consumption" of energy by matter.
    The creation of a funnel or vortex; the lowering of the pressure-gradient of a specific frequency of the electro-magnetic grid.
    The wandering of orbital energy particles, and their surrounding funnels.
    The fuson of funnels after approximation by chance.
    The "low-pressure trough".
    The similarities between the funnel phenomenon and the manifestations of "gravity".
    Attempts to match the ideas of energy-capture or consumption with the concepts of mass and inertia.
    
    
    
    
13. Back to the grid of criss-crossing electro-magnetic wave-fronts.
    The conceptual problems associated with an effortless faithfulness in following the fluctuations of the grid by a point-source of existence.
    The disappearance of the tension-gradient or sensitivity to the energy-potential.
    All objects of existence must be able to experience these tension-gradients or energy-potentials.
    The concept of mass-less particles is, therefore, an essential contradiction; e = mc2.
    Energy can not exist if the mass is zero, because c2 is a finite constant.
    Another attempt to equate mass and inertia with energy-capture.
    The absorption of radiant quanta by an elementary particle; as a resonance-frequency, boosting the internal energy-content, or, as a non-specific agitation of the particle as a whole, or thermal energy-content.
    Inertia; the measure of "slowness" in yielding to electro-magnetic energy-potentials.
    Mass; the environmental pressures of the electro-magnetic energy-potentials on the vortices or funnels of the "consuming" particles of matter.
    Shifting our attention to shifting reference systems.
    The observation of the fixed speed of electro-magnetic propagation.
    The Doppler shift.
    The definition of time; atomic clocks and their oscillations.
    Uniform changes, and the inability to detect these changes, because of the lack of a standard of reference.
    The observer as an atom, traveling at a great speed in relation to another observer-atom.
    Discrepancies in measurements and conclusions.
    Problems in determining the status of "rest".
    The absence of a "bow-wave effect", if traveling at a uniform speed through the electro-magnetic grid.
    Questioning the validity of the conclusion that the speed of light is constant.
    Relativity is based on the finite velocity of light, and not on an absolute value for the speed of electro-magnetic propagation.
    The differences between special and general relativity.
    The Galilean transformations assumed the instantaneous transmission of light.
    Differing velocities of light in a variety of natural media.
    Differing propagation velocities of a wave-front with differing internal frequencies.
    Light, influenced by gravitational and electro-magnetic force-fields.
    Problems with the measurements of the constancy of the speed of light.
    The difficulties of finding a source of light with a significantly different inertial system of reference.
    Is the speed of light indeed constant?
    Relativistic reality perceptions, and the changes in time, mass and dimension, based upon the finite speed of light in widely diverging inertial systems.
    Similar conclusions can be reached without accepting an absolute constant for the speed of light.
    
    
    
    
14. Light from a terrestial source and a quasi-stellar object.
    The possible influence of local "media" upon the velocity of light, e.g., the earth's atmosphere, terrestial, solar and galactic gravitational fields.
    The crossing of countless galaxies by light from quasi-stellar objects.
    What are quasi-stellar objects?
    Negligeable differences in local inertial reference systems.
    The galaxy as a frozen, slowly spinning wheel, locked into a gravitational "hold".
    Quasars, or quasi-stellar object, are galaxies, "seen", when they existed near the time of origin of the Universe.
    The assumption of a homogeneous Universe; several billions of years ago, as well as now.
    Nearby galaxies are seen to exist in a gravitational embrace, and may even be colliding, indicating, that the Universe was expanding before, but is now stationary or contracting.
    The "red-shift", approaching zero, as the expansion speed was close to the speed of light at the begining of the origin of the Universe.
    The Big Bang theory.
    A review of modern ideas about the Universe and the nature of matter and energy; the oscillating Universe.
    A return to questions about local influences.
    The influence of elementary particles upon the homogeneity of space, and, the apparent homogeneity of the electro-magnetic grid, in spite of different vantage-points from inertial systems in motion relative to each other.
    
    
    
    
15. Light and the field of gravitational attraction.
    Light from quasi-stellar objects, and the distance it has traveled.
    The crossing of many gravitational fields by this light.
    The stability of certain radiant energy-forms.
    The laser beam; the "giant photon".
    Modulating a beam of synchronous electro-magnetic vibrations.
    The bouncing electron.
    Ripples in an electro-static field.
    The rapid attenuation of an electro-static field, unless sustained between positive and negative charges.
    The magnetic line of force emanating from the spinning electron.
    The vibrations of this line of force during the bouncing of an electron.
    The mutual induction of the electric and magnetic components of an electro-magnetic vibration.
    The phase-differential between electric and magnetic components.
    The level of energy; frequency and amplitude of electro-magnetic vibrations.
    The direction of the wave-front in relation to the electro-static sphere around an electron.
    The photon and anti-photon; mirror images of each other.
    The closed loop of magnetic lines of force.
    A return to the electro-magnetic grid; mechanisms of decay of a radiant energy-form.
    The "boost" of internal energy-levels by the absorption of suitable resonance frequencies.
    Space, as seen from our particular vantage-point.
    A point in space, and its description in relation to a frame of refernce.
    Randomness remains random, even, if inertial reference systems are moving in relation to each other.
    The crossing of an electro-magnetic wave-front through a small volume of space, seen as a volume of points and described in relation to a system of reference.
    The waxing and waning of powerful, super-imposed oscillations.
    The same wave, crossing a volume of space enclosed by a system of reference, and, in motion, compared to another system of reference.
    The slowed transit-time of a wave, if the second reference system is traveling in the same direction as the wave-front; seen from the first system of reference.
    Lower frequencies, slower transit times, but a similar number of oscillations.
    The constant product of time and frequency.
    If the speed of propagation of all electro-magnetic wave-fronts is the same, the "local medium" has influenced the speed of propagation. In this case, the energy-content of the wave-front as originally emitted, becomes unmeasurable, because the frequency is now meaningless as a parameter of energy-content.
    The Doppler phenomenon or red-shift of quasi-stellar objects.
    If the speed of light from quasars is not slowed-down as measured on earth, a local influence is responsible for the "red shift". This is unlikely and therefore, the light emitted by quasars is, probably, slowed-down in their transit time.
    The slowing-down of "clocks" on a fast-receding system of reference.
    The reciprocity of the red-shift, or slowing of clocks, between observers on either system, if they are rapidly receding from each other.
    The "correction" of these apparent discrepancies, and, the conclusion that measurements will appear identical in either system of reference.
    The apparent denial of the foundation of the theory of relativity.
    The dependence of this theory upon the finite velocity of light, in stead of an absolute constant of this velocity.
    The relationships between the Doppler effect, red-shifts and changes in the flow-rate of time.
    The absence of any compelling reason to believe, that the apparent constants of the velocity of light in specific reference systems should be identifical to each other.
    
    
    
    
16. The appearance of other events in rapidly receding systems of reference.
    The energy-capturing ability of elementary particles.
    What happens, when the speed of an elementary particle approaches that of an electro-magnetic wave-front.
    The theoretical impossibility to accelerate a particle to the speed of light.
    The appearance of a rapidly increasing mass or inertia.
    The upper limits of the ability to "capture" energy or "feel" a potential differential.
    The slowing-down of all periodic phenomena.
    Relative motions; trains, the earth revolving around its axis.
    The limitations of sensory perceptions.
    The reasons, why a "stereoscopic" Universe was an unlikely imagery for such a long time in the development of reality perceptions.
    The differences in interpretation between primary sense impressions and sophisticated thought-patterns.
    The relativity of "rest".
    The crux of the concept of relativity is to learn to abandon the arbitrary choice of a particular system of reference as "the norm".
    Difficulties with our existential requirements, when abandoning a center of certainty.
    A return to points and their systems of reference; a point or a line.
    The drastic change in appearance of the same phenomenon, seen from different, shifting frames of reference.
    A review of Galilean transformations and relativistic transformations; their differences in appearance.
    Measuring distances in different inertial systems.
    The roles of speed and timing.
    The consequences of a high-speed "fly-by".
    The appearance lagging behind the reality, and, the consequences of seing a cube flying-by at a very high velocity.
    The slowness of the transmission of light.
    The Doppler effect at the time of a fly-by.
    
    
    
    
17. Non-inertial reference systems; systems in a state of acceleration in relation to each other.
    Further attempts of general relativity to equate the ideas of mass and inertia.
    The idea of a space-time continuum, and the distortion of this space-time continuum by the presence of matter.
    The curvature of space-time.
    Difficulties with these attempts to visualise the nature of the Universe.
    The "vanishing" system of reference.
    Attempts to relate the "known" or visible part of the Universe to its totality.
    The problems with a uniform Universal density of matter-energy in all directions.
    The "Big Bang origins of the Universe.
    The phenomenon of the Milky Way.
    The limitations of our ability to enlarge the visible or scrutinisable sample of the Universe; help from radio-frequencies.
    The gravitational inter-locking of close-by galaxies, and the evidence that the period of Universal expansion has already ended.
    The compatibility between a finite and infinite Universe.
    
    
    
    
18. A summary of our ideas about oscillations.
    The stability of energy as radiant or orbiting forms of existence.
    The nature of gravitational attraction and the electro-magnetic grid.
    The gradual weakening or increasing instability of an electro-magnetic wave-front.
    The inability to relate, convincingly, all the forces in nature to each other, at our present state of comprehension; the problems of mass and inertia.
    The philosophical approach, when making an audacious attempt to unify these concepts.
    The uselessness of trying to out-guess the nuclear physicists.
    Philosophical considerations make us aware of a very large, but broadly acknowledged structure of reality, with a few speculative thoughts thrown-in, here and there.
    The inter-change between matter and energy.
    The cohesion of cosmic and sub-atomic forces.
    An attempt to visualise the evolution of matter in generalised outlines.
    Explanations, and the meaning of an explanation; statistical predictability.
    The superiority of a predictability that is based upon an understanding of internal, causative mechanisms.
    The need to work with a "given entity".
    The characteristics of the electro-magnetic radiation as the basic "given" building block for our contemporary understanding.
    
    
    
    
19. The electro-magnetic wave-front, visited, once again.
    The essential identity between the two right-angle planes of oscillation.
    The "helicity" or "direction of turning" of the electro-magnetic wave-front; clockwise or counter-clockwise.
    The right-handed or left-handed "cork-screw".
    The macroscopic examples of the phenomena in a transformer; vector relationships between the direction of current and the magnetic orientation.
    The spiraling magnetic lines of force.
    The "planes" of an electro-magnetic vibration, seen not as "flat" planes, but as planes with a tendency to close into a circle, spiral or tube.
    The imagery of a photon "falling upon or enclosing itself" around its magnetic or electro-static components.
    The link of this image with the imagery of an electron.
    The problem of existing conditions of asymmetry in nature.
    Helical symmetry; electron and anti-electron or positron.
    Magnetic contraction; the magnetic monopole.
    The asymmetry in existence, or distribution, of matter and anti-matter.
    The electron, seen as a point-source of electro-static charge, spinning around its magnetic axis.
    The equivalent picture of a magnetic monopole, spinning around its electro-static axis, which is aligned with the electro-static field between the nucleus and the "magnetic monopoles".
    An arbitrary assignment of names.
    
    
    
    
20. The aspect of "asymmetry" in the world of matter-energy.
    Evolutionary mechanisms as a cause for a secondary asymmetry.
    The inter-locking of particles that are mirror-images or anti-particles to each other.
    The collision of "mirror-photons" and their decay into elementary particles.
    The possibility of a "near-miss".
    Counter-balancing the tendency to annihilate each other with a strong, energetic angular momentum of spinning around each other.
    The image of the meson as a spinning quark-antiquark complex.
    The "contraction" of a photon around the electric or magnetic plane, and a helicity in a clock-wise or anti-clockwise direction, giving rise to four basic ways to form an elementary particle.
    The build-up or inter-locking pairs, either as particle-antiparticle complexes, or, as particles attracted to each other by a magnetic or electro-static opposite.
    Heavy and light particles, where the "heavy" particles are those, whose entire energy-content is contained in the angular momentum of their spin.
    Two spinning tops, pointing towards each other, and spinning in opposite directions, rotating through an axis that is perpendicular to their aligned axes.
    Further images about possible combinations of spin and rotation.
    
    
    
    
21. The electrical neutrality of particle-antiparticle complexes.
    The strong binding force of particle-antiparticle attraction.
    A comparison between the phenomenon of temperature and fractional energy losses, caused by an interference from the electro-magnetic grid.
    The impossibility of reaching absolute zero degrees Kelvin because of the ubiquitous presence of thermal energy.
    No evidence for the internal slowing of rotatory complexes due to a lack of "consumable energy".
    The identity between the force of gravitation and the "environmental" pressures caused by a local lowering of the energy-level of the magnetic grid; the image of a "funnel", or vortex, and the continuous energy-consumption by matter.
    The drifting-together of particles without charge.
    The nearly completely submerged object floating at sea.
    A large eddy, and the accumulation of such large, submerged objects.
    The galactic proportions of such an accumulation of electro-statically or magnetically neutral particles.
    The gradual increase in gravitational pressures, relative to the total mass of particles that have drifted together.
    
    
    
    
22. The periodic system of atomic elements, and their evolution inside stellar furnaces.
    The probability, that, some of the lighter elements, such as hydrogen, are formed "in space", outside a stellar furnace.
    The radical transformation of our world by secondary evolutionary processes.
    Elementary particle-formation is, probably, still going-on in space, where there is a high concentration of radiant energy and a low level of gravitational disturbance.
    Gravitational pressures and temperatures may convert matter into radiant energy-forms, but, this energy may also be absorbed into more complex nuclear formations.
    Protons, neutrons, and the "glueing" action of mesons.
    The proton or neutron as a product of "space"?
    The "dressed" proton; neutral in charge because of the presence of an encircling electron.
    The analogy with the "submerged" object, responding only to a slow gravitational contraction.
    The internal structure of the proton.
    Neutron-proton inter-actions.
    The structure of the meson.
    The meson as an elementary particle, created "in space"?
    The remarkable stability of the neutron.
    
    
    
    
23. A rapid vibration of the magnetic line of force.
    The "slow loop".
    The strong and the weak bonds between particles.
    A comparison with strong and weak intra-nuclear binding forces.
    Balanced annihilation energies of heavier and lighter particles?
    The intra-stellar furnace as a birth-place for many, if not most, of the complex matter-antimatter orbital energy-forms.
    Intra-nuclear orbital sharing of "heavy" particles, compared to the sharing of electrons between atoms.
    The massive energy-content of the nucleus, because of the large portion of matter-antimatter energy-content of its nucleons.
    The contemporary problems of the quark or dyon theories.
    A suggestion, why the ratio between the creation of heavy and light elementary particles is dependent upon available energy-levels.
    
    
    
    
24. Implications of this imagery for our existence as human beings.
    A possible "end" to the search for the links between energy and matter.
    The "slow" agreement between people, and the never-ending search for a "deeper" understanding.
    The fallacy of a fatalistic approach to the problems of a "workable hypothesis".
    The confusion between the essential un-knowability of an absolute reality and the ability to form a workable imagery out of chaotic reality perceptions.
    The temptation to hide in the face of difficulties.
    The fallacy of relying heavily upon mathematical virtuosity, without the ability to "visualise" what we postulate to be "a reality". All knowledge will, eventually, be related to our needs.
    The need to understand better the processes of human thought.
    The fallacy of accepting the image of a single "Big Bang".
    The oscillating Universe, and the multi-centricity of the processes of energy-conversion.
    The essential "givenness" of electro-magnetic properties.
    The need for "given constants".
    The fallacy of the question; "where does energy come from?"
    
    
    
    

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