THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF EVALUATION


behaviour in the zone of emotional neutrality





A Study in Thought

sa033



by





Marius Heuff

Chapter 1

Content

The roots of scientific behaviour.
The short-cut of behavioural flexibility.
A short review of evolutionary trends.
Reflex-conditioning.
Variability in the range of recognition-patterns.
Cerebral classification mechanisms.
Learning and reflex-conditioning.
The fluid nature of the search for viability.
Knowledge and behaviour.
The role of scientific knowledge and expertise.
The dangers of too narrow a focus of interest.
The sense of beauty.
Existential motives behind the desire to know.
The "leit-motiv" of emotional neutrality.

The roots for our capability to engage in scientific activities, or, to "behave scientifically", go back long before the emergence of the human species, because the foundation for this apparently specific human activity was laid-down, when the forces of natural selection began to experiment with behavioural flexibility. A number of new behavioural avenues became avaliable, when strictly encoded behavioural instructions were loosened in order to provide an input from individual experiences.

The foundation for the ability to form concepts and scientific belief structures in a zone of emotional neutrality was laid-down with the short-cut of behavioural flexibility, and, this short-cut was so successful, that many species' became quickly dependent upon the ability to modify their behavioural responses on the basis of past experiences. Yet, the characteristic of individual variability in behaviour has its origins even before we see the break-through of behavioural flexibility, and goes back to the beginnings of the living organisation. We have seen, how biochemical mechanisms in the single cell will show, already, the phenomenon of "attenuation", (which is a diminished reaction to a specific but frequently repeated stimulus), and, we have also discussed, in the previous essay, the principle of reflex-conditioning, where a non-significant stimulus can acquire meaning by frequent association with a significant stimulus.

It is, probably, justified to see the mechanisms of reflex-conditioning as a sign-post on the road towards behavioural flexibility, because all learning mechanisms seem to find their roots, there, in the mechanisms of the conditioned reflex. Some flexibility in behaviour has always been present, even, in those species' that are not recognised as "behaviourally flexible". For example, the behaviour of insects is strictly controled by genetic instructions, but insects still show a measure of flexibility in their motoric reactions to environmental conditions. However, in the concept of behavioural flexibility, this flexibility is not limited to motoric adjustments, because most animal life-forms have some flexibility in the range of stimuli they can react to.

Certainly, the range of existentially significant stimuli is quite rigidly outlined, but, as we have discussed before, the recognition-patterns of the more sophisticated animals depend on a balance between a sufficient level of generalisation to make the recognition of similarities possible, and, a sufficient precision in order to maintain satisfactory uniformity of meaning for those stimuli that are recognised as being similar.

In every act of recognition, we see, therefore, a variety of cerebral mechanisms at work. These are similar to our conscious, mental classification systems, where we abstract a common denominator from similar awarenesses that have found a symbolic representation. This enables us to classify a series of similar conditions and circumstances as belonging to a specific category of sense impressions or awarenesses. The common denominator functions, then, as a classifying principle, and, it may acquire its own symbol, later, functioning as an "abstraction".

The behaviourally flexible species' are far more susceptible to a process of "learning" compared to species' with a genetically controled and precisely encoded repertoir of behaviour. This is a clear indication, that learning and behavioural flexibility depend, to a large extent, upon the phenomenon of "reflex-conditioning", because, only with the help of this mechanism can we visualise a change in the range of stimuli that can be recognised as significant during the life-span of an individual.

Species' with a rigid behavioural repertoir may be conditioned to a stimulus that is quite close to their natural range of recognition-patterns, but a behaviourally flexible animal may learn to associate a neutral stimulus of a completely different nature with a significant stimulus or event, and, the range of recognition, as well as the range of behavioural responses, can, therefore, be modified to a much larger extent in the flexible animals compared to those with a rigidly encoded behavioural repertoir.

The only reason, why we have elaborated upon this somewhat theoretical discussion, is to emphasise, once again, the slow but fluid nature of adaptations taking place during the evolutionary search for existence possibilities. Just as a new species emerges almost imperceptibly, without sharp boundaries from a pre-existing one, (when the environment exerts a great deal of pressure on a segment of a population because of rapidly changing circumstances), so should we see the development of behavioural flexibility and learning as a continuation and elaboration of possiblities that go back to the earliest mechanisms of the living organisation. These mechanisms were accentuated and elaborated by the forces of natural selection, because they proved to be a very useful avenue to satisfy the requirements of rapid adaptation to quickly fluctuating circumstances, especially, for large, slowly maturing organisms with a limited number of offspring.

Here, we see the origins of scientific behaviour. I know, that this statement sounds strange to many people, because we tend to consider scientific endeavour as a recent innovation of the human mind; not much older than a few centuries at the most. Besides, most of us will frown upon the term "scientific behaviour", because we do not recognise or acknowledge the fact, that scientific activities and results are part of our behavioural complex. We do not consider knowledge to be a part of behaviour; rather, we regard knowledge as a structure of "supra-human" or extra-human realities that are slowly being revealed to us and allow us to grasp, eventually, the entirety of human nature, life, and, even, the Universe. Especially, in our most active and vigorous years of dedication to scientific activities, we have a great deal of faith in the absolute validity of scientific knowledge, and, we tend to judge, harshly, any opinion or activity that is based on a less than perfect series of proofs and arguments.

In our zeal for scientific excellence, we see very little of the overall behavioural aspects in which consciousness, knowledge, observations and arguments are part and parcel of this world of mental awarenesses, and, we brush impatiently aside any attempt to scrutinise the fundamental structures and assumptions upon which scientific work has been based. We are so busy staking-out an existence possibility in the competitive world of academic research, that we have no time to sit back and reflect upon what we are doing.

We see very little of our own behaviour. Our search for an increase in scientific knowledge is inextricably interwoven with a search for existential security and possibilities of advancement. Most of us, clever academicians, will, eventually, occupy a rather responsible position in society, and, we will function as an expert in one field or another. Whether we realise it or not, we will be asked to fulfill some sort of a role in society, and, we should have some idea, how we, experts, fit into the larger society.

We should have some idea, how to communicate with those, who do not share our specific field of expertise, and, who do not speak the same scientific language. We should have some idea, what kind of an impression we make upon other professionals and ordinary members of society, and, we may come to the conclusion, that we have been dangerously blinded by the narrow focus of our interests, as well as by the obvious existential motives of our behaviour, which have been obvious to our environment, but not to us.

In short, sooner or later, most of us, even those, inspired by a genuine sense of beauty for the fruits of honest scientific thinking and hard work, will need an overall view or a broad perspective. Then, we can relax for a moment and reflect upon the nature of scientific thought and work. We have to know something about the nature of our scientific realities and conclusions, as well as the motivations of those who are engaged in scientific activities.

We may feel a need to relate these reflections to an overall, scientific over-view of what man is. Such an over-view will let us see, who we are; how we function, and, how science relates to other fields of human endeavour. An interesting and important question will be to explore the relationships between the arts and the sciences, because we will see, that they have many aspects in common. Let us explore the common ground between these two fields. We can do this by focussing upon the emotions or sensations of beauty, as well as the motives that let us dedicate an extra-ordinary amount of energy in the service of our ideals. Throughout history, man has been at his best, when pursuing the ideals of beauty and perfection.

We will review, briefly, some of our ideas about intelligence and the human personality, in order to show the existential meaning of intelligence and behavioural fine-tuning. We will see, how closely related our concepts of behavioural fine-tuning are to the mechanisms of scientific endeavour. In behavioural fine-tuning, we emphasise the usefulness of behavioural activities for an individual or group, while in scientific endeavour, we interpret the same sort of activities on the basis of a desire to know, or to complete a scientific work.

We often think that scientific work reflects a desire to understand for the sake of understanding, but, we are probably closer to the truth, if we interpret this drive in existential terms, because the construction of a coherent framework of findings and interpretations gives us always an existential advantage, and, such an existential advantage evokes a curious mixture of satisfaction, a feeling of power, as well as a sense of beauty.

The motivations of scientific endeavour are, therefore, less clearly related to immediate existential requirements, but, we see, nevertheless, how existential motives come to the fore-front, whenever we have become dependent on the income generated by scientific work. Then, scientific work acquires strong existential overtones, clashing, in essence, with the requirements of emotional neutrality which are necessary for the pursuit of excellent scientific work.

It will indeed be a vast panorama of mechanisms and relationships, which we are going to outline in this essay. First of all, we will discuss along quickly sketched evolutionary lines, the potentials for intelligent observations, arguments and logical conclusions, because they are all part of the ability to conceptualise. The behavioural nature of knowledge will become clearer as we go along, and, we should, eventually, be able to see knowledge as an aspect of human behaviour, rather than behaviour as a subject of knowledge that has been grasped in a structure of absolutely valid scientific concepts.

Certainly, the interplay between behaviour and knowledge will require an extensive analysis, because we see some sort of a circle. We do indeed grasp behavioural mechanisms in a form of knowledge, but, this leads us to the conclusion, that knowledge forms only a small part of the entire behavioural complex.

Let us move-on, because we will explore these aspects in detail, later. Here, we are only sketching an "overture" to the whole work. However, we will use as our "leit-motiv", (as the guiding thread through the facric of this entire essay), the methods of scientific thought and the attitudes of emotional neutrality, because they form, together, the foundation for scientific analysis and synthesis. Without such a focus, the "tonality" of our work would become blurred, and, we know, that "impressionistic" or unfocussed and "atonal" thoughts are not going to serve a useful purpose, when trying to elucidate the mechanisms of a scientific reality perception.

The discussion of the scientific method, including a description of its characteristics and an analysis of its functions, should keep us on a more or less straight-forward conceptual track from which we will wander with frequent "modulations" to related ideas and concerns.

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Chapter 2

Content

Continuing the evolutionary thread.
Finely tuned behaviour.
The basic trade-off.
The key to reproduction.
Enhanced possibilities for adaptation through the sexual mode of genetic transmission.
Rapid changes in life-forms, as well as environmental conditions.
The role of imitation in behavioural adaptations.
Form and content; genetic and environmental factors in the make-up of a behavioural response.
Behavioural flexibility on the rise.
The habitat of pre-human animals.
The break-through of concept formation and symbolic communications.
The "disastrous" break-through of human intelligence.
Internal strife between the members of "Homo Sapiens"; a useful check against complete dominance and unbridled ecological exploitation?

Let us return to our main theme, and, we will try to pick-up the evolutionary thread that allowed the development of flexible behaviour. We have emphasised, before, why the natural experiment with behavioural flexibility represented a gamble; a trade-off between advantages and disadvantages. By loosening the organisation of behaviour-patterns, and, by making the genetic instructions less precise, nature runs the risk, that the actualised members of such a species will become confused and prone to all sorts of pathological deviations, but, there is also the possibility, that an organism will be able to forge, with the help of memory and the classifying functions of its central nervous system, a very useful, highly appropriate behavioural response, that is finely tuned to the possibilities of the moment and the requirements of local conditions.

This is the basic trade-off, which always plays a role in the evolutionary history of a species with behavioural flexibility, and, it will be helpful to keep this trade-off in mind, as we describe, and try to explain, what happens to a community that is endowed or saddled with the responsibility to work-out, for itself, the details of its individual and collective behaviour-patterns. Mankind can be regarded as the flexible species "par excellence", and represents the culmination, so far as we know, of nature's attempts to secure viability with the help of flexible patterns of behaviour.

The idea that behavioural flexibility can be an advantage during the on-going search for survival in a changing world, is based upon modern interpretations of scientific observations, where we have learned to see the evolutionary processes of life as a blind search for possibilities of existence. We have learned to recognise the need for each living organisation to possess some sort of a key, or code, to ensure the possibility of reproducing itself into a younger member of the next generation. The organism needs to reproduce itself because of the essential transience of the living organisation, and, it needs to reproduce throughout its life-span many metabolic compounds and structural organisations that are continuously used-up, or worn-out, by the activities of living existence.

If this code or key to reproduction and replacement would be extremely rigid, the ensuing generations would be exact copies of their parents, and, the viability of such a species would depend, heavily, on the stability of the circumstances under which its genetic code found its possibilities of existence. The sexual mode of genetic transmissions allows the continuous exploration of a much larger spectrum of variability between members that are not identical genetically, but are, nevertheless, close enough in structure and function to mate successfully and produce viable offspring.

The rapid development of a large number of species' of life, reflects numerous local variations of circumstances and conditions, as well as rapid ecological, geographic and climatological changes. Eventually, nature started to explore the possibilities of adapting individual behaviour to such an extent, that the specific behavioural responses of a member of a species, matched, exactly, the local circumstances of its particular environment. This was accomplished in essentially two different ways; the build-up of a personal reservoir of memories and experiences, as well as the imitation of a successful behaviour-pattern from the parental generations.

The introduction of the possibility to imitate certain behavioural responses from the parental generation, shows us, how the new generation can make use of the collective experiences of the previous generations. This collective experience is transferred to the behaviour-patterns of the new generation by making the newly formed organism susceptible to an "imprint" of the behaviour of the adults around them. This means, that the young come into existence without a specific behavioural program. The program is "left blank", so to speak; at least, it is left blank to a certain degree, but we recognise the fact, that this program is delineated by a genetically determined range of physiological possibilities and preferences.

The behaviour of flexible species' becomes, therefore, less dependent upon precise genetic instructions, but, the overall range of specific behavioural response-patterns remains under the control of the limits set by the genetic code. These limits are, on the one hand, determined by the anatomical and physiological characteristics that allow the organism a certain range of movement and functional capabilities, but, on the other hand, the limits are also determined by the range of recognition-patterns. Obviously, an animal has an innate range of cognitive potentials, but this range is rarely activated over its full range, because the prevailing circumstances may emphasise the importance of certain recognition-patterns in favour of others, and, we see, again, how important the ability of "imprinting" is for building-up the most useful patterns of recognition.

Later in evolution, the trend towards flexibility in the range of sensory perceptions and recognition patterns leads to sophisticated neurological mechanisms, which increase the range of recognition patterns by evolving the capabilities of "memory" and "classification". A physiological system of generalisations and classifications develops, (as we have outlined before), where the animal is capable of responding to a large variety of different perceptions. The response to these perceptions comes under the influence of individual experiences, as well as the collective experiences of the social grouping the organism belongs to.

Behavioural flexibility is, now, firmly on the rise in the exploratory search by the forces of natural selection for possibilities of existence, and, this trait becomes an ever more important and dominating feature, as we come closer to the evolution of the human species. In the early human ancestry, we see a sophisticated motoric apparatus evolve, providing for the ability to move in a complex, three dimensional space, jumping and swinging from branch to branch, as well as short runs from one cluster of trees to the next.

There are remarkably complex mechanisms of perception and movement taking place, allowing the pre-human animals to satisfy their existential requirements. A large variety of fruits, berries, leafs and other food-stuffs, including small animals, are utilised according to the circumstances, while highly skilled motoric capabilities developed as a result of a long ancestral evolution in the trees, explaining the prominence of good coordination and stereoscopic vision. The anatomical and physiological capabilities of human existence are logical and understandable, if we look, carefully, at the ancestral history of our species. Behavioural flexibility and rapid fine-tuning of behaviour were essential for survival, since each tree was different, and, each square meter of habitat required a slightly different response.

Let us not review, here, the development of our ancestry in any detail, because, on many occasions, we have indulged in speculations about the way this phase of evolutionary development may have taken place. Let us just recapitulate some of the main conclusions. Let us re-iterate the concept, that behavioural flexibility became the corner-stone for survival in species' that were ancestral to man, and, the emergence of "Homo Sapiens" rested upon a continuation and a further exploration of these evolutionary trends.

Initially, there was a carefully balanced trade-off between the advantage of the possibility for behavioural fine-tuning, and the disadvantage of a loss of specifically encoded behavioural instructions, because this loss could easily lead to confusion, chaos, as well as an increased vulnerability of the newly born offspring. This evolutionary gamble must, often, have become a failure, as well as the disaster of extinction for a species that was exploring the possibilities of behavioural flexibility, but failed to find sufficient possibilities of existence.

We see, how this balance has shifted dramatically to the side of mastery and dominance in the human species, when a really aggressive exploration of the possibilities for behavioural fine-tuning, led to the use of weapons and tools. Later, the break-through of concept-formation, verbal communications, increasing interdependencies and specialisations in function shifted the balance of viability so dramatically towards the human species, that many of the much larger animals became, fairly suddenly, a prey for the members of mankind.

Nature's adaptative adjustment to the sudden, and, for the non-human species' catastrophic break-through of human intelligence, has been too slow for us to measure, and, very likely, nature "relies" upon the competitive and aggressive instincts of human beings to keep the overwhelming dominance and exploitative capabilities of a united mankind, in check. Certainly, as far as we can go back in the history of our species, man's most serious enemy has been another human being or a group of human beings, but, let us return, now, to the consequences of behavioural fine-tuning and concept formation.

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Chapter 3

Content

Man's mastery.
Behavioural fine-tuning requires also perceptual fine-tuning.
A conscious framework for classifying conceptual awarenesses.
Common denominators as classifying principles.
The classification of similarities in events; "causes and effects".
Scientific methods for classifying sense impressions.
Logic; defined as a form of dialogue.
Calculation; when it is easy to decide, whether or not a logical step is completely right or completely wrong.
Deductive reasoning, and classification on the basis of similarities.
The confused meaning of the word; "is".
Logic and reasoning rely upon a commonly agreed-upon system of reference.
The causes of misunderstanding; irrelevance and a deliberate blurring of logical reasoning.
Logic, seen as a tool to delineate an observation.
When something can not be recognised as familiar.
The unknown, described in generally accepted abstractions and qualities.

Man's mastery over his environment, together with his dominance over natural enemies, began to depend, therefore, to a large extent, upon the skills of formulating a response that is most precisely in tune with the circumstances of the moment. We see, how the use of an appropriate weapon or tool gives a sudden advantage to the user and increases the likelyhood, that he will accomplish his goals.

Together with the motoric ability to handle a variety of tools and instruments, we note the development of increasing skills in the perception and classification of categories of sense impressions. Behavioural fine-tuning is only possible, if the focus of perception, as well as the capabilities of cerebral classification, allow for an ever more discriminating, subconscious analysis of the prevailing circumstances.

With the development of the voluntary recall of mental images through mimicry, gestures and other forms of symbolic representation, we see, how the evolution of the human being really takes-off into a dimension of its own. The profusion of mental images, sharpened by frequent voluntary recall, facilitates the emergence of a refined perceptual focus, as well as a sophisticated and intelligent analysis, culminating, eventually, into a conscious framework of classification for our numerous awarenesses. These awarenesses are then grouped-together into verbalisable categories of similarities in appearance and event.

This conscious system of classification for the many verbalisable and symbolically represented mental images evolves "naturally", because there is an urgent need to remain in control of the profusion of mental images. A large variety of symbols becomes, quickly, confusing and unmanageable, unless it is possible to classify similar mental images into a system of categories with common denominators. These common denominators become, then, the classifying principles for the different categories in use, and, later, these classifying principles are verbalised as an abstraction, greatly facilitating the ordening of a stream of mental images.

We have sketched these developments before, and, they are only recalled, briefly, as a foundation for the development of our ideas about "scientific behaviour". In our modern times, the number of verbalisable awarenesses and perceptions has increased to such an extent, that no single individual is able to know all the existing systems of coherence in detail. However, all these systems have a common methodology, which we can describe, when we analyse, how these systems of coherence build-up the relationships between causes and their effects. Without going into details, here, we are justified to say, that classification on the basis of similarities in appearance, as well as cause and effect relationships, is the basis upon which our entire system of scientific explanations has been founded.

In the scientific description of a situation, we may emphasise similarities in appearance, whenever the situation or conditions of existence are not changing significantly during the time of observation, or, whenever we are not sure how to analyse an event into cause and effect relationships. In the latter case, we may have to rely on recognising a similar profile in our attempts to fathom the nature and significance of an event. We execute, then, a carefully balanced and deliberately "objective" process of classification by describing a variety of similarities and differences in appearance.

Rather than relying on habit, common practice or authority, the scientific method of description attempts to have a fresh look at the material to be classified. The reasons for classifying certain similarities become then substantiated by producing supportive evidence or arguments in favour of a certain classification. These are processes of "logic", or "internal order", where items of awareness are categorised in a coherent and overseeable manner.

The desire to create an inner logic of our awarenesses applies to all categories of observation; those, that are static, as well as those, showing a marked element of change during the period of observation. The function of logic can be defined in several ways. In essence, logic implies the classification of certain awarenesses in such a way, that a description or definition corresponds with a similar or related classification that already exists. In other words; we always try to classify information or sense impressions in accordance with a previously accepted structure of classifications, and, our arguments for or against a certain way of classifying an item of awareness, always rests on the presence of other systems of classification we have already agreed-upon, and, which are not subjected to scrutiny; at least, not at the time we use it to classify a certain observation.

In this definition, we see, not only, the importance of the aspects of agreement with other people, (or the reliance upon an established truth, which is also a function of past agreements), but, we see, that the process of logic is, in essence, a dialogue as well. It may be a dialogue with others, where we debate the advantages and disadvantages of a particular classification, or, the dialogue is with ourselves, whenever we use the technique of "balancing arguments" as a means to come to a precise classification and accurate description of a specific observation.

If we are dealing with a system of precisely defined conceptual relationships, such as mathematical symbols, the making of logical decisions becomes "easy", in the sense, that it is relatively easy to determine, whether or not a reached conclusion is right or wrong. In mathematical logic, which is primarily represented by "calculations", the factors one works with, do not have to be weighed or scrutinised about their content of truth or variablity of meaning. A simple decision of right or wrong, true or false, is sufficient, because the factors are precisely defined, and, the manipulations, necessary to obtain the answers, are clear and generally agreed-upon. It is, therefore, not difficult to come to a consensus, whether or not a manipulation is correct.

However, in almost all other forms of arriving at conclusions, (by working with generally accepted conceptual structures of reference that are based upon classifications of sense impressions), the rules of right and wrong are not nearly as clear-cut. While we work with an exact meaning in the field of mathematics, the mechanisms of deductive reasoning about facts and observations, based on an inter-action with our environment, deal with categories of similarities that have a much more vaguely delineated and variable meaning. Deductive processes of reasoning involve, then, varying levels of abstraction and classification, which make it often difficult to compare items and arguments, and, it is, then, much more difficult to agree amongst ourselves, whether or not a particular conclusion is right or wrong.

For example, if we say, that a horse is a mammal, and, that all mammals are vertebrates, we come to the justified conclusion that a horse is, therefore, a vertebrate. We have adhered to the established order of classifications. A horse is a specific example of the larger category of mammals, and the mammals are a specific example of the even larger category of vertebrates, and, it is, therefore, perfectly acceptable to say that the horse belongs to the overall classification of the vertebrates.

However, if we say, that the horse is a mammal and the cow is a mammal, and, that, therefore, a horse is a cow, we have obviously confused the meaning of the concept "is". "Is", may mean, "belonging to" and does not necessarily have the mathematical meaning of being "identical to". The horse belongs to the category of mammals, and so does the cow, but, this does not imply any further identity between the cow and the horse above and beyond that which has been expressed by their inclusion into the overall category of "being mammals". Often, subtle errors are made in our arguments of deductive reasoning, especially, if we forget to keep in mind the hierarchical differences between a specific and the common denominator, or class, to which a specific belongs.

Here, we see, again, how every deductive reasoning relies, heavily, upon the general validity of a conceptual framework of reference. Within the acceptance of such a framework, a discussion may remain logical and to the point, but, in the practice of debating, we see, very rarely, that the conceptual frameworks used in arguing a point, are identical on both sides. Slight mis-understandings, or arguments that are somewhat irrelevant, (and the occasionally deliberate blurring of a focus of meaning), are due to the fact, that the framework of conceptual references is not outlined with sufficient precision to let the arguments unfold themselves along lines of strictly logical reasoning. Of course, it is always possible, that one of the parties is deliberately hiding in a "misunderstanding", or, in an irrelevant point of view, whenever the debater feels, that he is going to lose the argument in a straight-forward battle of sound arguments.

The skill and techniques of deductive reasoning are often used, and abused, in a power-play; in an attempt to establish dominance, and, often, the focus or meaning of words is surreptitiously changed in a dishonest attempt to throw the opponent off a seemingly irrefutable and convincing line of thought.

Logic can also be used in a different manner. One of the most convincing ways to conduct a logical argument, is to shift the emphasis from trying to find an agreement about a conclusion or a line of thought, to establishing agreement about an observation. Certainly, the primary observation is, often, hotly debated as well, especially, if we fail to distinguish, carefully, between a primary observation and those features of an observation that imply an element of interpretation. Sometimes, it is possible to point to a variety of related observations, where the meaning and interpretation may be more generally accepted, and, we see, then, a very powerful and persuasive way to settle an argument by the logical exposition of supportive and circumstantial forms of evidence.

If I perceive a phenomenon that has attracted my attention for one reason or another, I will, almost always, be able to classify, with confidence and ease, the sense impression of this particular phenomenon. The perception may have a significance for my existence, and, if I have difficulties recognising such a perception, (like a sound in a dark, unfamiliar and potentially hostile environment), I will sense, immediately, a feeling of apprehension. My defensive instincts come to the fore, and, I seek shelter, a safer place, or the company of other people, in order to discuss my experiences and observations. I may be re-assured, if someone can interpret the phenomenon for me, but, I will have to be convinced, that the individual knows what I am talking about, and, that he or she is truly familiar with this particular phenomenon.

However, if my attention is drawn to an observation that is not coloured with a strong existential significance, I will remain more neutral in my attitudes. I may, then, be able to perceive, slowly, all sorts of details in the observation that created, first, only an overall impression. By focussing my attention for a prolonged period of time upon the unknown phenomenon, I may be able to give, eventually, a description of what I have seen or experienced, without being able to identify it by name. This description may be emotionally controled, rational, precise and detailed, and, it has to have these qualities, if I want other people to give me a hand in identifying it.

Obviously, I am not able to put a label on the entire phenomenon, otherwise, I would have recognised this phenomenon and called it by its name, but, I may be able to describe the phenomenon in a variety of ways. I may be able to enumerate a large number of sense impressions that are named, and, therefore, familiar, to those, who have not experienced the same phenomenon. I translate the sense impressions, then, into a series of qualities or abstractions. My audience and I know the meaning of these qualities and abstractions, because we share a sufficient portion of the cultural pool to be able to use these conceptual tools efficiently.

The unknown is, therefore, described as a series of qualities, features and observations, which we can label, and, in this way, we can describe an unknown entity in analogies and similarities that allow us to build-up a composite image of the phenomenon, without knowing its name or meaning.

We have discussed these mechanisms of analysing "the unknown" before, and, we have seen, that there is no other way to describe a new experience, perception, sensation or object. It has to be translated into terms, features, qualities and entities that are known and agreed-upon by the members of the community in which we live and work.

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Chapter 4

Content

The limited conceptual vocabulary of the early societies.
Their reactions to the "unknown".
The role of the attitudes of reverence and awe.
Why blurring the meaning of a concept may be useful.
A fortunate combination of existential security and clarity of mind.
The perceived threats of an attitude of intense scrutiny.
The larger society, and the possibilities for more independent thought patterns.
When behavioural fine-tuning is "halted" by comfortable certainties.
The stress experienced by a structure of beliefs.
The motivations behind efforts to design a new way of looking at reality.
The dangers and benefits of exploring the unknown.
The "mitotic division" of a growing nomadic society.
Existential motivations show a close correlation between behavioural fine-tuning and the drive to explore.
The satisfaction of an accomplishment.
The "intuitive" scientific method.

In the early stages of man's development, his conceptual vocabulary was small, and, logically, the sharpness of his perceptions and the precision of his ideas must have been less than we are capable of today. Many unfamilarities had a strong existential significance, but the relatively unsophisticated grasp over reality, meant, that curiosity must have led to disaster on many occasions. Therefore, the usual response to an unfamiliar phenomenon was an attitude of fear, but, there must thave been a relatively subdued awareness of the rewards of investigating the unfamiliar with an attitude of emotional neutrality.

We have argued, before, that the attitudes of confidence and curiosity have to be nurtured in a shelter of security, and, a culture must have reached a measure of sophistication and prosperity to make such an emotionally neutral attitude rewarding. The feelings of awe and the attitudes of reverence have to be sufficiently attenuated in a secure and confident social environment, before a curious, exploratory form of behaviour would come to the fore and be tolerated.

This brings us to the conclusion, that, in the early societies, there was little awareness of the fact, that reality perceptions were vague and blurred; at least, these reality perceptions appear blurred and vague according to our contemporary standards of judgement. There was no incentive to investigate or scrutinise, because many of these imprecise ideas dealt with the larger forces of nature, and, they were, therefore, invested with a great deal of unquestionability. The attitudes of reverence and fear would lead to a quick identification of the force involved, and, an unhealthy curiosity or disturbing tendency to raise questions, would be suppressed.

We know, now, why such attitudes were logical and inevitable, and, we have learned to study them carefully, rather than dismiss them as "mere superstitions". When we look at the intellectual tools these early people had to work with, we come to the conclusion, that their psychological reactions were logical and largely effective adaptations to the prevailing circumstances. Yet, on many occasions, this fortunate combination of security and clarity of mind must have prodded an individual to think and observe more closely, and, inevitably, questions would come to the fore. The established attitudes and explanations would then be challegend, at least, in the private thoughts of an alert and observant individual.

Questioning accepted notions and beliefs is, invariably, frowned-upon by the social establishment, just as it is today, and, such an attitude or practice is easily condemned as "anti-social", because leaderships never tolerate an attitude or activity that appears to contradict them or challenge their authority. Such a questioning attitude is easily considered a threat to the community, and, the members of these early communities would have been warned that such irreverent attitudes may anger the gods.

As a community becomes larger and more secure, it becomes more complex, too, and, the absolute certainty of an explanation or belief begins to crumble in a collision of divergent cultural trends and reality interpretations. The conceptual vocabulary becomes richer, and an emotionally more neutral attitude of scrutiny may become possible, perhaps, by default, as leaderships find it increasingly difficult to control what their members think and do. Occasionally, an activity of intelligent curiosity and investigation pays-off and leads to an advantage, such as the discovery of a useful item, tool or weapon, or, a tid-bit of information. Or, an increase in power is derived from the manipulation of a secret or a ritual that has the ability to impress and guide the members of society, etc.

It is, probably, justified to conclude, that, as a rule, the larger societies favour the development of emotionally more neutral attitudes and allow a better fine-tuning of behaviour. Absolute truths and unquestioned explanations are weakened by the clash of ideas and beliefs, and yet, here too, we see a precarious balance. Such a large, complex society is easily weakened because of internal strife, or the disappearance of a core of firm, cultural guidance-patterns, and, as a result, the threat of fragmentation is always there. A large society fragments into smaller groupings that are invariably at odds with each other, and, this gives rise to increased levels of anxiety and hardship. With a diminished level of security, we see a revival of absolute beliefs, as well as more fervent religious attitudes, displacing the fragile flower of emotional neutrality.

The processes of behavioural fine-tuning play a remarkable role in the ascent of man on the ladder of evolutionary success, but, they are being halted, at least, to some extent, by their own success, as well as the development of a confident structure of certainties. As a conceptual structure gains credence by experience and communal agreement, it solidifies into a comfortable and absolute truth, and, all subsequent awarenesses and perceptions are then classified into such a conceptual framework of absolute certainties.

As long as a belief structure reigns unchallenged, it is static, and, the number of dissenting, unclassifiable observations is kept to a minimum by insensitivity or, even, an active suppression of disturbing awarenesses that do not fit easily into this structure. Eventually, the discrepancies between belief and experience become so great, that the belief structure has to adapt, or, it will crumble completely. Then, it may be swept-away by a more relevant and credible structure of conceptual relationships.

Whenever a society experiences a period of stress with social upheaval and crumbling belief structures, it is weak and vulnerable to attack from the outside or from within. Prior to the onset of severe social decay and a marked rise in the level of stress for many members, depressing all activities of emotional neutrality, it is possible for an occasional individual, left undisturbed, to start exploring a variety of different ways of looking at reality. The motivations for doing so are complex, and result, in part, from a desire to find a greater degree of certainty and intellectual satisfaction, but, it may also reflect, merely, an opportunity to explore avenues of thought and to re-examine reality "from the ground up".

A period of increased individual freedom usually follows a decline in the relevance of an official belief structure, but, unless this behavioural freedom leads to a well-adapted, appropriate response with positive and tangible results, this pathway of development will not be beneficial for long. There are many dangers associated with a great deal of individual freedom. First of all, there are the dangers associated with the literal exploration of unknown territories, but, even, the exploration of different attitudes and a new way of life, or rapid changes in social conventions, have an unsettling effect, because many of the results are unforeseen and are much more likely to be a burden than a benefit. And, if there are rewards following an increase in behavioural freedoms, they may still lead, quickly, to social tensions, if the benefits are jealously guarded by a privileged and powerful elite. Innovations in life-style and improvements in the way things are done have to benefit the society as a whole. If not, these benefits will quickly become a focus for strife and disparity.

Let us assume, for a moment, that behavioural freedom does not lead immediately to internal strife, and, that the drive to explore leads to territorial expansion, as well as an increase in the vigour and confidence for the society as a whole. After a period of rigid social guidance, (during which the pioneers have laid the foundations for a viable and vigorous society with sensible and healthy attitudes), we see, that a measure of individual freedom may, indeed, quicken the pace of development and prosperity. Individual freedom of thought, expression and enterprise, leads to a rapidly rising standard of living. As long as a majority is able to profit from these opportunities, we see, that the strength and vigour of society are increasing. However, the increased elan vital of society has to find an outlet, and leaders are quick to use these vital energies for their own egocentric objectives.

Often, this vigour is translated into an expansionist drive, either to satisfy the prospects for an opportunistic gain, or, the sentiments of honour and pride are subverted to divert attention from internal frictions and failures. Unfortunately, a vigorous and healthy society or individual is easily goaded into aggressive and belligerent posturing, and, it does not take long before the excess elan vital is squandered, once again, in acts of warfare, plunder and opportunism.

Before the rise of the early "civilisations" with their relatively dense populations, there was, often, an opportunity for fairly large groupings to "wander" and settle into an area of their liking, whenever the community they belonged to, became too large and too unstable. This "splitting" of a growing and increasingly unstable nomadic grouping has been compared to the division of a uni-cellular organism, and, indeed, the same mechanisms of dispersion and growth can be seen in the spread of uni-cellular organisms and the groupings of more complex animals. A scarcity of food, population pressures, as well as other internal tensions have led many vigorous and adventurous individuals to explore, in small groups, the hazards of the surrounding unknown, or, the lure of far-away territories.

We should not lose sight of the fact, that, many of the potential and actual dangers associated with the exploration of "the unknown", must have been off-set by substantial benefits, otherwise, these attitudes would have been weeded-out by natural selection a long time ago. The rewards may be practical and immediate, or, they may be more subtle, such as a feeling of mastery that comes with clear thinking, or, a sense of beauty, when one recognises an exceptional achievement. However, as we mentioned, the factor of existential significance is never completely absent from the activities of behavioural fine-tuning, because, even the artist or philosopher, moved by the beauty of a sense impression or an idea, still has to survive, and, even these specialists are naturally inclined to make a living in their own fields of expertise.

Our discussion has still not arrived at the stage of human evolution, where we see a fully developed method of scientific exploration. It is clear, that the possibilities for a fully developed behaviour of emotional neutrality is "given" in genetic outline only, and, it has to be cultivated by study and the assimilation of an appropriate cultural code. People, who are sensitive to the beauty of understanding and the value of carefully balanced arguments, have gone through a long period of training in a suitable social environment. Eventually, they are rewarded by a sense of beauty and an ease of comprehension, but, it is clear, that these skills remain a part of our overall behavioural repertoir, and, we see, that the skills of behavioural fine-tuning in a zone of emotional neutrality always have some sort of existential significance.

A sense of beauty, generated by a finely balanced perception and a carefully evaluated decision, is, in essence, the reward of an intuitive form of scientific behaviour. We will try to enlarge this concept by showing a gradual transition from "intuitive scientific behaviour" to a fully mature and fully conscious scientific method of inquiry. However, we will also become aware of the fact, that, even the most highly developed methods of scientific scrutiny remain behavioural activities that are carried-out by human beings, and, we are, therefore, justified to consider scientific methods of scrutiny as a part of the behavioural range of the species of mankind.

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Chapter 5

Content

The value of emotional neutrality and refined reality perceptions.
Why an increased use of "cause and effect" concepts leads to a greatly increased predictability of events.
The gradual contraction of the realm of anthropomorphic force-fields into the concept of a "Prime Mover".
The question, where God came from.
The role of a sense of mystery.
An inviolable law; something can not come from nothing.
Energy can not come from non-energy.
No anthropomorphic forces outside the human will; a fundamental scientific conclusion.
The difficulties of accepting this reality perception.
The disappearance of the concept of the "Prime Mover".
A definition of the scientific method.
The persuasiveness of the scientific approach, and the potentially horrifying results of some scientific achievements.
Scientific behaviour is based on the globally shared biological heritage of mankind.
The weight of observation and verification.
The balanced argument.
Increased predictability and manipulability; the persuasiveness of experimental evidence.
A reminder that none of these factors argue in favour of an absolute reality.
The many layers of conceptual reference systems are becoming a target for scrutiny and verification.
The beauty of a successful structure of thought.
The beauty of understanding.
The dangers of using a discovery for narrow, egocentric purposes.
The dangers of unbridled technological applications.
The difference between what we need and what we want.
Similar methods are used in science and technology.
Rapid technological developments; a major contributor to our most serious social problems.
The seeds of salvation and devastation are sown together, as always.

Many people have begun to recognise the value of examining our environment, including the phenomena of life and our own existence, with the attitudes of emotional neutrality and the skills of refined interpretations. As the cultural pool of conceptual structures and causal relationships became more detailed, we developed the ability to analyse our individual sphere of reality perceptions with a great deal of clarity. Perceptions became more detailed and the analysis of many causes and their effects became more sophisticated. A more extensive framework of causal relationships resulted in a dramatic increase in the predictability of natural or man-made events. Increased predictability of events, and, especially, the increasing acccuracy of predicting changes in the course of an event after a deliberate intervention, led to a remarkable degree of mastery over the many natural forces that influence man's existence.

We see, then, how this entire structure of "willed" anthropomorphic forces slowly faded from man's conceptual imagery. We realise, now, that an anthropomorphic explanation of reality was the inevitable result of the fact, that early man had to interpret his sense impressions without the help of sophisticated instruments, and, it was logical, that man interpreted the nature of the force-fields he was exposed to, as a reflection of his own, willed behaviour-patterns. The anthropomorphic structure of reality interpretations remained, until recently, the only sensible method to interpret the events and phenomena of existence in a coherent manner.

The element of arbitrariness in the natural forces gave-way, gradually, and, it contracted, eventually, to a rather sophisticated concept of monotheistic guidance. This contraction occurred because of an ever increasing cohesion in man's reality interpretations that became linked to each other in complex chains of causes and effects. Yet, at the same time, man's increasing mastery over his environment obscured the natural link between his own world of reality experiences, and, the perceptions of other animal life-forms. Man became convinced, that he was more closely related to the gods than the world of the larger mammals, because these animals had all become subjected to him. In addition, with the development of conceptual mastery, man thought that he knew the "will" of the gods, because they seemed to behave so much like himself.

We still see, that some form of monotheistic reality perception is prevalent throughout the world, because a complex framework of coherent phenomena still requires the explanation of this first step; how was it possible for something to come into existence, if there was nothing before? In other words; where does the world of tangible existence come from, in whatever shape or form this existence presents itself to us? By postulating the existence of God as a "Prime Mover", we see, that the question, where God came from, was relatively easily answered with the explanation, that God is "Omnipotent" and always existed. The parallel assumption, that matter-energy has always existed, is not as satisfying as an answer, because the concepts of matter-energy and an Oscillating Universe are not mysterious enough to absolve us from the persistent question, where matter-energy, with its varying characteristics, has come from.

The logical error of asking the question "where does matter-energy come from", has been answered by showing, that the assumptions behind this question are inconsistent and incompatible with the fundamental laws of natural existence. In essence, this question implies, that something can come from nothing. The concept that existence can not come from non-existence, plays a key role in our contemporary understanding of the transformations between energy and matter. Energy and matter are two aspects of the same item of existence, "matter-energy", oscillating between a radiant and an orbital form of existence. We have outlined these ideas before, in the sketch "Oscillations".

Yet, it is undeniably a strange experience, that an ever more coherent picture of cause-effect relationships leads to the conclusion, that, so far, we have no evidence for the existence of an anthropomorphic or willed force; a natural force, which may arbitrarily turn itself on and off, or, change direction "at will", just like the behaviour of a human being. The tacit scientific assumption, that all observable phenomena can be grasped in a coherent framework of causal relationships, is enhanced, continuously, by the osbervation, that, indeed, so far, there seems to be no other force that could be compared to the deliberately willed behavioural choice of the human being, except the forces exerted by other "willing" animals that share man's capabilities of flexible behaviour.

We have explored the emotional dissatisfaction that stems from such an isolated existence, but, we must concede, time and again, that the most careful scrutiny fails to support the idea, that we are influenced by a Willed Force, such as the Love or Wrath of God. Even the concept of a Prime Mover is losing credence, because it appears, that a Hypothetical Prime Mover had indeed very little or nothing to do, after He started the whole thing with a "Big Bang".

Let us try to define, now, what, exactly, we understand under scientific behaviour. Let us examine the various forms of human endeavour, which could be classified as "scientific activities", and, let us also examine the reasons, why scientific evidence has a remarkable appeal for a large variety of peoples in many different cultures.

In conjunction with the persuasive aspects of scientific endeavour, or "research", as it is so glibly called, we should also look at the various psychological mechanisms that play a role in the attitudes of scientists and their work. The results of scientific work are far from being universally beneficial and appealing, because many applications and technological developments have become frightening and abhorrent.

The persuasiveness of the scientific method rests, primarily, on the ability to verify a particular interpretation and classification with repeated observations and "experiments". A particular way of classifying or interpreting a phenomenon is based upon the ability to point-out many related, and, sometimes, far-distant observations, which can be accepted as "circumstantial evidence" for the correctness or justification of a particular classification or interpretation.

In addition to the ability to point to many arguments and observations in favour of a proposed classification of a specific phenomenon, credibility is enhanced by the honesty of the scientist, as well as by the skill of carefully balancing the available arguments. If the scientific worker is able to communicate without fear of being discredited, and, if he is able to discuss a number of arguments that seem to contradict the validity of his supportive arguments, his honesty, careful analysis and unbiased discussion, with scrupulous attention to all relevant details, will be a persuasive, trust-inspiring experience. His audience will, intuitively, feel, that the author is not just championing his favourite theories, but, people will come to the conclusion, that the author is keenly aware of the temporary nature of an explanation and the relativity of any feeling of "truth". The author acknowledges in such a balanced presentation, that "certainty" is an existential need, and, that this need may confuse the clarity of perception, if we give-in, unthinkingly, to its motivating force.

Another, very important and impressive scientific activity is the ability to predict a natural or man-made event accurately. This prediction is based upon the mastery of a detailed framework of causes and their effects, and, the persuasiveness of predictability can be enhanced even further, if a slight but deliberate alteration of the on-going event leads to an accurately predicted change in the results.

This type of persuasive evidence forms the basis for an "experimental proof", depending, of course, on the degree of validity attached to the experimental manipulation of an event. Yet, we should not forget, that, the predictability of an event, or an accurately predicted change in an event, is still no guarantee that this framework of causes and effects represents an absolute truth, nor, does it indicate a necessarily durable or lasting interpretation of reality. We are merely dealing with a series of mental images that have found a great deal of validity, at the present time.

Here, we have the foundation of scientific persuasiveness, and the possibility of verification by repeated observations and experimentation, is a refreshing change from the weight of authority, or the irritating sterility of logical syllogisms, because, so often, these logical deductions go wrong without knowing why. Because of a refreshing accent on direct observation and verification, we appeal to, and rely on, primary sensory classifications and commonly agreed-upon conceptual structures, which can, if so desired, again be dissected into a series of scientific observations and experiments to back them up.

For this reason, cultural and religious beliefs play a relatively minor role in the evaluation of scientific data and their presentation, unless the area of scientific concern becomes difficult to delineate precisely and has been charged with existential or emotional significance; e.g., the scientific evaluation of ourselves and our individual and collective behaviour-patterns. Because the methods of scientific persuasion are fairly well standardised in most fields, and have been built upon structures of coherent thought that have, in turn, a solid scientific foundation, the whole structure acquires a sense of reliability.

A successful structure of coherent, scientific thought, (still a rarity in our frantic emphasis on facts and data), may create a sense of beauty and evoke an attitude of loyalty to the scientific reality perception. This reflects, in essence, a recognition of the value of careful evaluation and scrupulous honesty. These attitudes are similar to the dedication of an artist to his particular craft, because, he too, looks for a coherent and clear perception of the artistic reality he is working with.

Therefore, there is beauty in understanding, and there is art in science, just as there is science in art. Before we explore the more elevating and beneficial aspects of scientific attitudes and activities, we should review, briefly, the potentially disastrous effects, when scientific achievements are abused to gain an egocentric advantage. We have to remind ourselves, time and again, that, each and every behavioural break-through is paid-for by the possibilities of abuse and disaster, because a natural balance has been disturbed, and, unbridled development poses a threat to many organisms and items of existence.

We have mentioned, before, the temptation to use a discovery exclusively for egocentric purposes, but, we know, now, how the discovery of something that is potentially valuable, can tear a small community apart by suspicion, rivalry, jealousy and strife. Unless a discovery is applied to the betterment of the whole community, such an asset will become a source of friction and warfare. If an achievement leads to the prominence of a small group only, and, if assets, discoveries and advancements do not become beneficial to, and property of, the society as a whole, we see, only, a stifling of social growth, as well as a fragmentation of society into divergent classes.

The technological advancement of weaponry has clearly demonstrated the ever increasing devastations that occur, whenever large and powerful social groupings engage in acts of all-out warfare, and, we all know, that we have reached the point, where a nuclear war may result in the extinction of the human species. We are aware, now, at least, to some extent, of the consequences of unbridled economic growth, the cancerous parasitism of the larger corporations and their pernicious influence upon the attitudes and life-styles of the people. We witness, every day, the dangers posed by glittering items of technological success, fueling the possessive instincts of consumerism with an incendiary drive to obtain ever more.

We all are vulnerable to the temptations of consumerism, because it is so easy to lose sight of the difference between what we need and what we want. Perhaps, we, in our affluent societies, have been somewhat sobered by the problems of affluence, but, we are still a tempting beacon for the lesser developed societies. It is logical, that they are blinded by the glamour of a luxurious life-style, and, that they are unable to see the many problems associated with it.

Technology represents the results of scientific insights; whenever knowledge is applied to solve a practical problem. In technology, we acknowledge, openly, our egocentric or socio-centric goals, and, we use the fruits of scientific insights for the purpose of making our existence easier, more pleasant, or safer. At the same time, we fuel our consumptive habits, and, in the process, we make our life, often, so soft, that we lose the insight, as well as the self-discipline, to tackle the problems that require hard, dirty and unpleasant work.

The attitudes and methods required to develop technology and science are the same. In scientific work we are concerned with understanding the mechanisms of nature, and, we want to construct a conceptual framework that lets us see the cohesion of previously un-understood phenomena. In technology, we design a variety of experiments or happenings, not so much to prove the validity of our understanding, but, rather, to test the flow and effect of the forces we have already understood in principle. The observations, study, experimentation and logical thought-structures that are so necessary to come to convincing scientific insights, are equally necessary for the design of useful tools and instruments, because it takes a lot of refinement in knowledge to translate the understanding of a principle to the accurate and detailed forecasting of, and control over, a flow of natural events.

The far-ranging effects of technological developments are still difficult to oversee, and, this is not the place to explore the social problems that have arisen with the uncontroled growth of technologial possibilities and economic activities. We will remain focussed on the attitudes and activities that have made it possible for us to master our environment to such an unprecedented degree.

We have mastered the forces of nature to such an extent, that we have removed ourselves, almost entirely, from a natural ecological balance. Only interhuman strife and the limitations of our planet, determine our viability. The enormously rapid technological developments of the last century lie at the roots of our most pressing problems, but, at the same time, in nature's ever-present balancing act between the advantages and disadvantages of a particular evolutionary break-through, we may see the threat of nuclear war as the main incentive to come really to grips with our social problems and our tendency to fight each other to the death.

While the by-products of technology and mass-production now poison large areas of the globe, and, soon, perhaps, the entire terrestial environment, it is also true, that the products of technology make world-wide communications and efficient bureaucratic structures possible. The seeds of devastation and salvation have been sown together, as always, but, human viability may not be able to present a sufficiently large range of possibilities, over a sufficiently long period of time, to allow the processes of natural evolution to select a viable mode of large-scale social integration.

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Chapter 6

Content

The potential for understanding ourselves.
The direction of social developments.
The solutions of justice and self-discipline.
How to build a reality perception we all can accept.
Naive hopes and dreams.
Patience, careful analyses, and tenacious efforts to construct a conceptual synthesis.
The need to grasp complexities in balanced and comprehensive, but, nevertheless, manageable idea-structures.
A contracting sphere of concern, resulting from fear and distrust, and, the enlargement of this sphere of concern by the attitudes of trust and good-will.
Eradicating corruption and inefficiency through transparence and responsibility.
The power of beauty, honesty and integrity.
A rich crop of altruism, kindness and concern.
Perpetuating the web of fear and distrust.
An emotional synchrony of harmony and loyalty is an effective tool for maintaining social cohesion in a small society.
Perverting an attitude of good-will by a collective attitude of hostility towards "the outsider".

Let us turn away from the darker sides of man's use of technology. We have dwelled on these matters before, and, we would like to emphasise the fact, that the abuse and dangers associated with man's increasing mastery over the forces of nature, do not make the potential benefits from science and technology impossible. Let us not forget, that the techniques of technology will also have to provide the mastery over our strong instincts to display egocentric behaviour-patterns.

It may well be, that the same abilities to observe and think clearly in an atmosphere of emotional neutrality, will help us control ourselves, after we have mastered the forces in our environment. We seem to be at a curious stage of evolutionary development, where we can manipulate with great dexterity the forces around us, including the emotions of the public, but, we are still unable or reluctant to acknowledge the need to make controled and intelligent long-term decisions about our own behaviour.

If we could take the capabilities of behavioural flexibility one step further and build a commonly agreed-upon imagery of the direction into which we are heading, (as well as the disasters that will befall us, if we continue to give-in to our drive to fight each other), we would have the means to control our aggressive trends, and, we would have the ability to replace the instinct to settle existential conflicts violently with a collective agreement of essential equality.

There is nothing mysterious about the forces that seem to push us into a suicidal direction. After we have recognised our illness, or, rather, the short-comings of our biological heritage for the requirements of our modern times, we should not have any difficulties to design an effective remedy of social justice and self-discipline on a world-wide scale.

We have frequently discussed the problems associated with unrecognised egocentric attitudes, in particular, the socio-centric egocentricity of a group or an entire community, and, we have outlined the reasons, why it is possible to understand ourselves from an evolutionary point of view. We have sketched the consequences of a crumbling cultural structure, leading to massive confusion and a collective posture of anxious defensiveness. The question, now, is, how to build an image of what is happening to us, and with us; an image we can all recognise as valid.

"Naive", you will say, "to expect a majority of people to recognise, the world over, a similar picture of reality that is so closely linked to their competing existential demands. It is naive, to think, that it will be possible to exclude emotional reactions of fear and suspicion, which have always kept our reality perceptions at odds with each other. It is naive to expect people to be able to agree upon such a complex phenomenon as the direction of development for human societies, or, even, mankind as a whole. For every aspect and interpretation, someone else will be able to point to a completely opposite point of view, and, we are back to the problem, how to interpret a phenomenon that has enormously complicated and contradictory features".

Patience, careful analysis, and a slow, methodical attempt to construct a synthesis, where we try to grasp the essential features of this complexity in ever more persuasive and generally appealing terms, are the only way to master the problems of the present and the future. We have to diagnose the conditions and circumstances of our modern times, and, we have to construct complex but manageable idea-structures, while generalising and abstracting the many facts and sense impressions to the point, that we can confidently manipulate a framework of relationships that lets us see the totality of what is going-on.

This task will have to be accomplished with the techniques of emotionally neutral observations, the careful weighing of various interpretations, as well as ceaseless efforts to relate the many details into a coherent whole. The same attitudes and methods of approach that have given us science and technology, will also provide, eventually, a picture of ourselves we can all identify with, and, which will make us truly citizens of the world. Then, we will not be exclusively concerned with our local environment, but, we will be able to identify with the totality of human existence.

"Naive", you will repeat, and you will shake your head in disbelief, because you are not able to see the road along which such a dream may come true. We will not repeat the arguments we have used before, when we outlined the factors of mutual suspicion and defensive egocentricity as the root-causes for a contraction of our sphere of concern. Let us remind ourselves, that the opposite development can also take place, if we are able to enlarge our feelings of mutual trust and concern by increasing the credibility and transparence of what is happening in society.

Actually, it will not even take all that long to change the outlook of people, once a genuine and effective effort is underway to curb corruption, inefficiency and dishonesty. Once we feel, that we have some control over our destiny, and, that our concerns are listened to and taken seriously, we will be buoyed by a feeling of hopeful expectations. The problem is not, that we have completely lost faith in the nature of man or his ability to cooperate, but, we fail to see, how we can change this massive momentum of distrust.

Once we have seen, that we can have open, efficient and honest bureaucreacies; once we have seen, that we can control economic growth-patterns and exploitative practices; once we have seen, that it is possible to oversee the complexities of social events and mechanisms with the aid of fully computerised centra of information-gathering and retrieval or display systems, confidence and mutual trust will come to the fore, and, it will not be long, before we look back with a sense of disbelief at the nightmares of the past.

"And you think, that such is possible with the fragile instruments of a reasoned approach and an emotionally neutral technique of observation and evaluation, which relies on the persuasiveness of honesty, beauty and integrity? Naive".

Maybe it is naive, but, let us not underestimate the power of beauty, honesty, integrity, and, above all, a sense of dignity and justice. Just as all human beings are susceptible to the temptations of violence, hatred and egocentricity, so are we also susceptible to being moved by concern, honesty and integrity. Even, if we hide our feelings of good-will behind a mask of worldly wisdom and cynicism, (because we do not like to be made a fool), we are able to respond to attitudes of kindness and trust within the security of a small group or a family. True, we can be galvanised into an emotional synchrony of violence and hatred, but, we can also be synchronised into attitudes of good-will, provided, we can trust our leaders and our neighbours.

If we can lessen the fear of being taken advantage of, mocked or exploited, whenever we give-in to feelings of good-will or our sensitivity to beauty, and, if we can raise the level of trust and believe what we hear and see, we may reap a surprising harvest of good-will and a rich crop of concern and kindness.

Why would not almost everybody be able to respond to these feelings and express attitudes of trust and confidence, if people can overcome their fears of being treated unfairly? Why do we attribute to almost everyone around us the ability to be envious or violent, while we think to be an exception? We are projecting our fears around us, and, in doing so, we contribute to their realisation or actualisation, because our fears and suspicions will be sensed and responded to by others, just as we sense and respond to the attitudes of mistrust of the environment in which we live.

We project these images of fear and suspicion, because we are an integral part of this web of distrust, and, we do not realise, that, by responding in synchrony with this web of suspicions, we enlarge its amplitude and power. Sure, there are plenty of concrete examples, where we can substantiate our feelings of mistrust, but, we do not realise, that we may also be cited in someone else's example of exploitative or objectionable behaviour. If we remember the fact, that we all are able to respond in an emotional synchrony, we will realise, that we are not so different from the people around us, and, that my neighbour, and everyone else, behaves in the same way I do.

If we all can respond in synchronous attitudes of suspicion and mistrust, then, there is good reason to believe, that we can also respond to synchronised attitudes of mutual trust and cooperation. "We see an abundance of examples of this, you will say, "but, interestingly, almost always on a rather small social scale. We may see a small group of people working together in an atmosphere of trust, harmony and loyalty, but, so often, their attitudes of mutual trust are subverted into a communal attitude of hostility and mistrust when dealing with an outsider".

Precisely, we have to realise, that our feelings of togetherness, mutual trust and respect have to be nurtured and enlarged, and, they have to evolve into a world-wide sphere of concern. Failure to do so will only result in a series of powerful, internally well-functioning societies, oiled by mutual trust and brazen confidence, but, when these societies are locked into primitive attitudes of mutual hostility, we see, that the well-being of their citizens will eventually be seriously undermined, regardless of the enthousiasm and loyalty they have shown towards the society they belong to.

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Chapter 7

Content

Scrupulous honesty, balanced reality perceptions, and a devotion to justice and truth.
A definition of integrity and honesty.
A sense of beauty, evoked by ease of understanding and a transparent structure of explanations.
The importance of evoking a sense of confident mastery for our young people.
The need to improve the quality of education.
The rigid guidelines of a specific ideal.
The paradox of finding beauty in the methods and achievements of behavioural neutrality.
The return on an investment of hard work.
Achievement and beauty.
Unsuspected vistas.
Personal interpretations, and the ability to see these vistas through the work of dedicated and integer people.
The growth of critical faculties and the rise of a deeper understanding.
The lure of personal success.
A genuine accomplishment, inspired by beauty and understanding, will always be recognised; at some time, somewhere.
The continuing search for an honest expression.

Let us return, then, to the attitudes of scrupulous honesty, dedication to a balanced perception of reality, as well as a devotion to justice and truth. We may summarise this complex of attitudes with the term "integrity". Why are the attitudes of integrity and honesty persuasive and trust inspiring? While some may consider integrity to be synonymous with honesty, I feel that integrity refers to an attitude that is more than just honest. In honesty, we see a form of conduct where there is no discrepancy between appearance and intention, and we see, therefore, that the behaviour of an honest person is transparent. By being transparent, it becomes easier for other people to "fathom" the personality, and, take advantage of. The honest individual can not take advantage of someone else, because his intentions are there, for everyone to see.

In honesty, we see a desirable and trust-inspring mode of behaviour, but, a personality we consider to be "integer", has other features as well. The integer personality behaves according to a lofty ideal that functions as a rather rigid behavioural guideline. "What has this do to do with the scientific method?", you ask, but let me remind you, that a clear, coherent picture of thought leads, often, to a sense of beauty. This is evoked by the ease and transparence of understanding, which come-about, whenever a confusing, chaotic and somewhat frightening perception of reality has cleared into an overseeable, logical and interdependent unit of mental images.

The attractiveness of scientific behaviour should be based on the sense of beauty that comes with a clear understanding of the many realities we have to deal with. If youngsters have been introduced to the benefits of clear thought and understanding during their period of formal schooling, we see, that they become competent and valuable citizens. Without such an experience of clarity of thought, and, without the ability to oversee the realities with ease and confidence, the task of mastering a number of subjects becomes drudgery, without any sense of benefit, and the motivation shifts to satisfying the social pressures one has been placed under by teachers, parents and superiors.

Certainly, it is irrealistic to expect, that every youngster is able to experience the beauty of comprehension every day. For many youngsters, these feelings are rare or unknown, as their own limited capabilities, their pre-occupation with more emotionally coloured behaviour-patterns, as well as the limited inspirational qualities of their teachers and social surroundings, make the activities of study and learning, a somewhat dull and essentially incomprehensible necessity. However, there is good reason to believe, that a better understanding of all the factors that make a youngster or adult susceptible to the experience of beauty and a flash of insight, will allow this fortunate experience to happen for many more people, far more frequently.

The experience that it is beautiful to understand, is of fundamental importance for our outlook on life. It may be the understanding of a scientific mechanism, or the comprehension of an artistic expression, and, either one may lay the foundation for a life-long devotion to the art and skill of understanding. In short, the experience of a sense of beauty that comes with the true mastery of a scientific or artistic insight, may lay the foundation for an enduring attitude of looking far beyond the horizon of strictly personal whims and needs.

"Why would this experience lead to an integer attitude?", you may ask. "Would a flash of insight not lead to somewhat cramped efforts to regain this experience, again and again? Why would the experience of beauty not be used in a selfish desire to experience this pleasurable sensation over and over again? Besides, would the feeling of beauty not negate the emotional neutrality of truly scientific behaviour?".

Yes, these are valid questions, and, in particular, the observation that we experience a feeling of beauty whenever we understand something clearly, poses a paradox to the scientific objective of emotionally neutral behaviour. It shows, first of all, that emotional neutrality is an idealised objective, which is based on the awareness, that a carefully controled emotional bias will let us see a finely detailed reality; much more so, than is possible with strongly emotional behaviour-patterns.

The benefits that come, at times, with a persistent and tenacious effort of hard work, be it scientific and technological, or the mastery of an athletic skill or form of art, are associated with a feeling of accomplishment, whenever such efforts are finally rewarded, but the feeling of accomplishment is more like a "triumph" of personal achievement, and, it is not really a reflection of the sense of beauty that is associated with a deep insight. Therefore, the emotional neutrality of a scientific insight is not distorted by an emotion of beauty, but, it is likely to be distorted by the investment in effort and hard work, evoking the feelings of accomplishment and victory, whenever success has finally come.

Nevertheless, there is a close correlation between achievement and beauty, but the orientation of our feelings is quite different. If we achieve, finally, after hard work and tenacious efforts, we experience a measure of pride and relief, when we finally reach our goal, but, the insights obtained with reaching our goals may also humble us, as we are suddenly gazing upon unsuspected vistas of understanding and insight.

While we may enjoy, for a moment, our pride in having reached a pinnacle, it will not be long, before the view from the top shows us, how much more we could accomplish. How much more and much deeper our understanding could be, and, as a result, we lose, quickly, our egocentric orientation, as we feel honoured to be able to place ourselves in the service of beauty and worthwhile goals. This, I believe, is the hallmark of the integer personality, and, we should be able to recognise the powerful influence exerted by a personality who believes, strongly, in certain ideals, and, who lives according to these strong beliefs in the service of an integer goal.

Sure, these vistas are personal interpretations and may not be fully shared by others, but there is a good chance that many people will be able to recognise, at least, some validity in the perspectives that have been opened-up, and, which have been made accessible by the activities of dedicated people. We, ordinary mortals, may be able to see some of this "view from the top" through the creations of the integer personality, without having to spend quite as much effort. By following the works of other people, we are able to look through their experiences without quite as much artistic skill or as deep an effort in thought. By seeing some of the views through the efforts of our integer leaders, we may enjoy a vision of beauty, and, we will feel a sense of gratitude towards those people and their works; for having allowed us to share, at least, to some extent, their experiences of beauty, comprehension and insight.

As we grow older, we mature, and we find our own hills of achievement to climb. Then, we realise the relative importance of the various visions. We may become more critical, and, we are less easily synchronised with a certain point of view, but, our understanding and appreciation for whatever has been accomplished, may also grow. We may be able to evaluate the efforts of others with a greater depth and precision of understanding, while finding, if we are lucky, a small field of endeavour where we are being given a chance to make a small contribution ourselves. The attitudes of dedication to the ideals of beauty, the tenacious resolve to do good work, and, the rigidity of a personality who has become involved, show many complex motivations, and, it would be wrong to ignore the fact, that there is a subtle mix of altruistic attitudes of dedication and egocentric pleasures of achievement.

If individual and collective security are endangered by deteriorating circumstances, there will, necessarily, be an increase in existential anxieties, and, the sphere of interests and concerns begins to contract, but, the experience of a period of hardship may also lead to a deeper understanding of the realities involved, and, it may make us aware of the fact, that our particular existence is not all that important. This is the reason, why the desire to achieve for the sake of social acceptance and success, is quickly tempered by a more sober outlook, as the going gets rough and success remains elusive.

Yet, let us not harshly condemn an individual for looking towards social success and acclaim, because the affinity for an experience of beauty is there. However, the insecurity and immaturity of the personality tempts the individual to use his talents and efforts for personal gain. Such an individual will need careful guidance and support in order to recognise the undesirable side-effects arising from too egocentric an attitude, and, the talented individual has to be taught, that, eventually, success and acclaim will come, whenever the audience recognises a genuine devotion to the art of understanding and the chores of hard work.

Someone, who is genuinely moved by the sensations of beauty and understanding, will never have to fear ever-lasting failure. Somebody, somewhere, at some time in the future, will recognise these efforts and may be moved by them, even, if they are not recognised as the best in their class. There are so many people on earth, and, the differences between us are, necessarily, so small, that, for every genuine effort to accomplish something, there will be many people, who will recognise, from personal experience, the validity, honesty and dedication of such an attempt.

Sure, for the sake of financial success, we may be able to deceive a large audience fairly easily, by applying our talents to a deliberately commercial enterprise, but, it will not be long, before this same audience will turn its back on the author of such a deception. The public is easily deceived, because of its eagerness to find new behavioural models or inspiring works of art, but the public has also a sense of honesty and integrity, and, it will continue to search for something, or someone, who is genuine, because people do not want to live with the suspicion that they have been hoodwinked by a clever manipulator.

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Chapter 8

Content

The experience of beauty, and the attitude of integrity.
The need for discipline and self-discipline.
The road towards far-off accomplishments.
The tools of guidance and discipline.
The roots of social significance.
Losing traits from a genetic or cultural code.
The disastrous results, when beauty and integrity disappear.
The irrelevance of a "virtuoso".
Intellectual aspects in the appreciation of art.
Emotionally neutral observations and attitudes in the implementation of our social contracts; possibilities and limitations.
Our anthropomorphic "will", and the assumptions of science.
Physics and meta-physics.
Science was founded in the world of tangible and measurable realities.
Science and the living organisation; a slow success.
The essence of the living and non-living organisation of matter-energy.
A backlash of suspicion and hatred for everything science stands for.
The possibility to grasp human behaviour in emotionally neutral concepts.

The experience of beauty and the attitude of integrity are precious faculties of human existence, and, we have to encourage and develop them throughout the world, especially, in the younger generations, who are still susceptible to major formative influences. Yet, we have to be careful not to abuse these potentials of influence for narrowly egocentric purposes. The sense of beauty has to be tempered with an attitude of discipline, and we have to teach our youngsters the beauty of carefully evaluating evidence with an attitude of emotional neutrality and painstaking attention to details. Beauty is not a quick emotional "high", but the fruit of hard work and a disciplined approach, and, these achievements become, then, the foundation for the qualities of perfection and competence.

In the attitude of discipline, we see the ability to limit the desire for immediate gratification. These limitations are, either, self-imposed restrictions, or, they have been imposed by our teachers. Discipline is necessary to construct a pathway towards far-off accomplishments that overshadow the fragmentary satisfactions and desires of the moment. In order to be able to recognise the validity and beauty of such a far-off objective, we need to be taught, and shown, that such goals are worth the effort, and, we have to develop a measure of clarity of thought and insight in order to see the beauty of a far-off goal.

We need, therefore, a disciplined approach to let us build ever more complex goal-patterns and intricate conceptual relationships, while, on the way to our objectives, we are allowed to feel, from time to time, the satisfaction of a successfully completed step. As we build our conceptual structures with layer upon layer of transparent complexity, our behaviour will acquire an ever greater coherence of purpose, as the outlines of our basic beliefs and long-term ideals begin to shine through, ever more clearly. Without discipline or self-discipline, these accomplishments are unthinkable, but, achievements must find their meaning somewhere in a social context, because, without meaning for other people, and the well-being of the social environment at large, our goals remain strange, empty and incomprehensible. We know, now, that living a satisfactory life-style is a communal affair!

If insights, ideals and cultural guidance-patterns are breaking-down because of social fragmentation and decay, the qualities of excellence, dedication, transparence and discipline are losing their meaning. Then, pupils and teachers alike will be tossed to and fro by the haphazard forces of their whims and wishes. Then, society fragments at an ever faster rate, as the organisational patterns of socially constructive thought and behaviour are being lost. Once a cultural trait disappears, it is gone, unless it lives forth within a different society, but, this cultural trait will often have been changed and altered almost beyond recognition. Just as the genetic code is irrevocably lost once a species has become extinct, a cultural trait will also be lost, if it does not live anymore under some of the people within a social environment.

You may wonder, why we have placed so much emphasis on the recognition of beauty and integrity, while discussing the activities of scientific behaviour. Simply, because we see, so clearly, the disastrous effects upon all our endeavours, including scientific efforts, once the recognition of beauty and the attitudes of integrity, begin to disappear.

We all know, how acceptable the attitudes of egocentric desires have become in our affluent societies, where science, knowledge and the arts are taught, and practiced, with the idea to achieve success, make a career, and, only as an after-thought, we realise, to some extent, that achievement and success have to be based on earned recognition, respect and admiration. People have to feel a genuine affection for a work of art or a scientific accomplishment, and, they have to be able to derive a real benefit from it, before they can, and will, identify with such an effort.

A virtuoso artist, or a brilliant scientist, may be admired for the skill and hard work that have gone into their achievements, but, if we can only marvel at dexterity or an authoritative exposition, we are left cold; somewhat envious, perhaps, but cold, because we sense, intuitively, if not consciously, the egocentric orientation of the whole excercise, and the relevance for me, as a member of the audience, is almost nil. What do I really care about his or her success, if I feel, that an individual is shining for his or her own benefit and cares, really, little about other people?

However, why repeat observations we have made before and are well-known. Let us explore the ideas of integrity a little further, as we widen our horizons for the existence of beauty and truth. So far, we have emphasised the sensation of beauty evoked by the sudden recognition of a transparent structure of thought, or the clear expression of a human ability. In the recognition of a work of art, the mechanisms of intuition and emotional synchrony play a somewhat greater role than in the recognition of a scientific structure of truth, or a philosophical work of coherent thought, yet, we all know, how knowledge about an art-form can help us appreciate it.

With the help of knowledge, we are able to see a particular work of art in the context of a wide spectrum of expressions. Knowledge and insight will also allow us to visualise the development of the artist as a personality, and, we learn to appreciate the technical merits of a work, as well as its flaws, but, above all, our understanding will help us to appreciate the devotion of the artist to his craft.

The ability to analyse many details and savour each aspect on its own merits, (as a prelude to marveling at the overall structure), all these features of the appreciation of art have a strong foundation of intellectual skills, and require a structure of coherent and emotionally neutral thinking. This is the reason, why there is science in art, just as we have recognised the existence of beauty, together with the quality of integrity, in the excercise of a scientific discipline.

Let us now explore two avenues. First, let us see, whether or not it is possible to apply the principles of emotionally neutral observations and evaluations to the realm of inter-personal contacts, (the analysis of people and their behaviour), and, in particular, let us see, whether or not it is possible to analyse our own reactions and actions, (when in contact with other people), using the tools of a more or less emotionally neutral observation and evaluation. Secondly, let us explore the collective and individual advantages that flow from an emotionally neutral dedication to the beauty of social justice.

Can we realistically maintain an attitude of integrity and emotional neutrality in our contacts with other people, and yet, avoid the temptation to adopt an attitude of silent contempt, elitism or surreptitious advantage-taking? Is it really possible to remain dedicated to the beauty of social justice, if we see so much vile behaviour, and, to what extent do we need to shelter ourselves from contacts, conflicts and emotional turmoil in order to maintain our sanity and idealism?

Let us acknowledge, right from the beginning, that emotionally neutral observations and evaluations appear to be less suited to the field of human behaviour and inter-personal contacts, because we have a difficult time to suppress emotional reactions whenever we are involved in conflict situations. Secondly, the human being is the one, major exception to the apparent absence of anthropomorphic force-fields in the natural environment. We should review, again, the basic assumptions of the scientific method, where we expect to be able to construct a coherent framework of conceptual relationships because of the fact, that, outside the human being, we do not see a natural force-field with an arbitrary whimsicality or goal-directed, anthropomorphic behaviour-pattern.

As we have mentioned, the basic scientific assumption isolates man as being curiously alone with his arbitrary will. This is the assumption upon which our efforts to reach cohesion and comprehension rest, and, if we would not have reached the mostly tacit conclusion, that there is no other anthropomorphic will outside the human being, all attempts to construct a logically coherent framework of cause-effect relationships would have been futile and doomed from the start. Not surprisingly, therefore, the field of human behaviour, and life in general, as well as the realm of religious behaviour and understanding, were considered to be "out of bounds" for the activities of the scientific inquiry. Philosophical thought structures have wrestled, literally, for many centuries, with the distinction between the "physical" and meta-physical" fields of existence. The field of meta-physics indicated the presence of a large area of awareness and experience, which seemed utterly closed to being resolved by scientific methods of measurement and description.

We should remind ourselves, how, indeed, science grew from the possibility to measure, weigh or delineate, as precisely as possible, a tangible phenemenon, presenting itself with a rather stable and constant appearance. It would then be suitable for measurement and a detailed description of its features. We remember, that, until recently, life was considered to be a form of existence that was essentially different from inorganic existence, and, the idea prevailed, that, all life, including human life, was the result of a specific, divine Creation. As a matter of fact, this belief is still the most commonly accepted assumption of the reality perceptions of most people.

Scientific inquiry, as well as the intuitive development of the scientific methodology, approached the realm of the living organisation only with considerable hesitation. A slow but constant increase in conceptual clarity led us to the startling conclusion, that life did not represent a new and essentially different principle of existence, but, that it represented, only, a remarkably fluid, chemical or bio-chemical organisation. This organisation, or piece of biochemical machinery, paid a high price for its unique capabilities of organisation, adaptation, growth, duplication and energy consumption. This price was a vulnerability to the processes of disease, death and decay. Even more recent and less well accepted is the idea, that living as well as non-living matter represents possibilities of existence that are already foreshadowed in the basic chemical and physical properties of inorganic elements, existing under specific terrestial conditions.

Only slowly, scientific inquiry was able to unravel the mysteries of biochemical metabolism, the cohesion of the living organisation, and the secrets of its genetic code. The enormous variability of life-forms made exact measurements much more difficult, but, a patient persistence in the belief that it should be possible to construct a coherent picture of living existence, paid-off, eventually, when this beautiful synthesis of thought came into being, showing us in the concepts of natural evolution, not only, the internal mechanisms of a living organism, but also, the relationships between the many species' and generations of living existence.

It is not surprising, that scientific methods were applied with hesitation to the phenomenon of man, and, not surprisingly, we see, that the scientific evaluation of man is still difficult and far from complete. Frequently, we get an impression of utter confusion and chaos, whenever we listen to the many contradictory opinions about man. Not many people are convinced that the sciences are able to give us a clear picture of who we are and how we came-about, in spite of the fact, that our biological background through a process of natural selection and evolutionary change has now become rather clearly established.

The uncoordinated and, often, one-sided views that have been advanced about the nature of man in the name of natural evolution, have created a rather profound disillusionment with the possibilities of scientific insights, after its prestige and hope for relevant answers soared high during the spectacular era of recent technological developments. The chaotic scientific imagery about the nature of man, his societies and the consequences of his behaviour, have undermined people's confidence in the usefulness of the scientific method, and, we are experiencing a sort of backlash, where the lack of confidence has encouraged some people to adopt an attitude of deep suspicion, even hatred, for everything science stands for.

The question is; can we expect satisfying and useful answers about the nature of human existence to come from an emotionally neutral method of observation, describing and comprehending social phenomena and individual human behaviour-patterns with conviction and a sense of relevance? Or, will the reality of individual and social existence always escape the methods of scientific thought and inquiry, because of the fact, that we are dealing with a field, where the arbitrary and haphazard direction of a flow of events is an essential feature?

We have discussed, on several occasions, why the arbitrariness of the human "will" is essentially foreign to the methods of scientific comprehension. However, the question remains; will we, eventually, accomplish a mastery over our own existence that is comparable to our mastery over the world in which we live? I believe, that it is not impossible to grasp the essence of human behaviour in emotionally neutral terms, because, we can do so, already, to a remarkable extent, if we look at the behaviour of people we are not involved with emotionally or existentially.

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Chapter 9

Content

A measure of encouragement.
Positive and negative stimuli.
The apparently huge gap between animal and human behaviour.
Growing evidence for an evolutionary link between animal and human life.
The remaining gap can be bridged, and will help us to understand ourselves.
The role of the "free will" in the analysis and synthesis of our behaviour.
The balance between positive and negative stimuli, and the concept of a "free behavioural choice".
Reasons behind the reluctance to accept the concept of a "free will".
The relationships between a "free will" and a series of positive and negative stimuli.
The subjective experience of a free choice, and the voluntary effort to assign significance to a sense impression.
Emotional neutrality; an important tool in everyday life.

We may be a little more optimistic about our chances to find a satisfactory scientific reality perception about our own existence, if we look at the results of more recent observations in the study of the living organisation. True, human behaviour has remained largely refractory to a coherent analysis and explanation, but the behavioural phenomena of less complicated living structures have yielded quite well to analysis and comprehension. We have discussed these observations on several occasions, and, we have emphasised a basic division of all sense impressions into positive and negative categories. The distinction between a beneficial and a harmful or potentially harmful stimulus has become a foundation for the study of all phenomena of life. We are still far from an agreement about the essential structure of human behaviour, but, we may, nevertheless, expect, that the methods of careful and balanced observations will, indeed, yield important insights, once we have learned to sketch the basic outlines of the human personality.

The main problem with a rational approach to the phenomenon of man, lies in the fact, that there is uncertainty about even the most elementary mechanisms of our behaviour, because the interpretation of the human being depends entirely on the way we see the origin of all existence. While scientists, and many other people, accept, in general terms, the ideas of evolutionary development, and look at our existence and behaviour with the functions of natural selection in mind, the full consequences of such an acceptance of evolutionary origins and mechanisms of change have not been spelled-out as yet. The discrepancies between animal and human behaviour have always appeared so large, that a belief structure, based on religious or primary sense impressions, has to reject the notion of an evolutionary origin of man, and, the sciences, still, have to make this imagery of evolutionary development for living and non-living existence plausible enough to be acceptable to a majority of the members of mankind.

A large number of people seem able to accept the physical evolution of human existence, because there is a very extensive body of archeological evidence to support this imagery, but, psychologically, the gap between human and animal life seems as great as ever. Hard evidence for the evolution of mankind, as a species within the natural spectrum of life on earth, has been growing dramatically, especially, in the last few decades, but, the ruthless principles of natural selection, especially, those that are best known, such as the struggle for survival and the survival of the fittest, have made it difficult to reconcile the scientific imagery with our subjective experiences; e.g., our ability to experience a sense of beauty, the ability to sacrifice for the good of others, and, the strong inclination to worship God.

It still is difficult to correlate the grim realities of the mechanisms of natural selection with some of the more ethical qualities of man's behaviour, but, if we look at the "darker side" of human existence, we see, that an evolutionary explanation of man is far more coherent and believable, than any religious explanation invoking some sort of a mechanism of "Original Sin" in order to reconcile the realities of man's behaviour with the assumed perfection of a Divine Creation.

We will not attempt to bridge this gap between human awarenesses and animal existence in this essay, because we have devoted a lot of work to this objective. As a matter of fact, to bride this gap and make the totality of man's behaviour plausible on the basis of evolutionary mechanisms, has been one of the main motivations for my writing efforts. Anyone, who is somewhat familiar with these ideas, will realise, that I am convinced of the possibility to construct such a bridge, and, I would like to emphasise this conviction by going one step further. I am convinced, that the construction of an evolutionary bridge between anthropoid and human existence, including the break-through of symbolic representation, is essential for a contemporary understanding of ourselves.

Let us come back to the original thesis, that scientific analysis has less relevance, as well as less chances of success in unraveling human behaviour, because we are dealing in the human "free will" with an arbitrary, goal-directed or teleological force, whose actions can not be deduced by a logical sequence of causes and their effects. At the same time, we will recall the remarkable efforts, (undoubtedly inspired by the "foreign" and unruly ideas of a "free will"), where scientists have tried to explain the behavioural choice of the flexible animal as a summation of positive and negative sitmuli, thereby re-introducing the idea of an analysable sequence of causes and effects when studying behavioural flexibility.

Scientific observations of animal behaviour have clearly shown, that behavioural flexibility is a reality, and, that many species' have come to rely on the possibilities of flexible behaviour for their survival, collectively as well as individually. Behavioural fine-tuning becomes, then, a mechanism that allows refined adaptations of behaviour according to local circumstances, but, the apparently "free choice" of an animal is explained on the basis of a balance between positive and negative influences, which have been carefully evaluated and are "algebraically summated".

These mechanisms seem to apply also to human behaviour, but, we experience the subjective reality, that we have the freedom of choice to make an arbitrary decision. This subjective reality has been difficult to accept for the scientific worker. The denial of the reality of a potentially arbitrary choice, rested, in part, on the fact, that such an arbitrariness was difficult to measure and did not seem to occur in laboratory animals that were considered to be behaviourally flexible. In part, the notion of an arbitrary choice has been rejected on the assumption that the behavioural mechanisms of the human being, including the existence of an apparently arbitrary or "voluntary choice", are also based on a subconscious summation of positive and negative stimuli.

We have not denied the possibility, that the voluntary choice will turn-out to be a subconscious summation of positive and negative stimuli, but, neither can we deny the reality, that we, often, make an arbitrary choice. True, most of the time, we make our choice almost automatically, but, sometimes, as the result of a long, agonising process of weighing contradictory factors, the choice is difficult, and, we feel that we could as easily have come to a radically different choice. "There", you say, "you are also endorsing the idea of balancing a series of positive and negative stimuli. How do you justify, then, your ideas of a "free choice", or, a "free will"?".

Even, if it is true, that our decisions are, usually, based on a finely balanced evaluation of positive and negative influences, we have to acknowledge, that there is a large measure of voluntary decision-making in the evaluation of these stimuli, in particular, if we look at the degree of significance we have to assign to all these factors. Besides, occasionally, we make deliberate choices that appear to go against our better judgements, perhaps, under the influence of an unrealised emotional bias or the confusion of a chaotic mind.

Certainly, it may well be possible to unravel, eventually, all these complex factors that go into reaching a behavioural decision, but, the unmanageable variety and complexity of factors requires us to accept the summarising idea of a "voluntary choice". We will have to accept this concept as a legitimate and easily verifiable common experience of reality, but, we concede, at the same time, the possibility that this reality of a voluntary choice may disappear on a different plane of observation.

Actually, the acceptance of the human will as a voluntary, partly sub-conscious and partly deliberate decision-maker, is not a concept that will make a rational analysis of human behaviour and its motivations impossible. On the contrary, the cramped denial of such a mechanism will make any scientific picture that tries to exclude the reality of such an obvious, first hand experience, a difficult image to give credence to. Let us not fall into the temptation to distort reality, because certain features confuse us; because we do not know what to do with the concept of a subjective "free will", when constructing a coherent imagery of scientific reality perceptions about our own existence.

It may well be, that the acceptance of the concept of a "free will", will make the construction of an evolutionary bridge between man and the rest of animal life, much easier than we thought. However, in our attempts to explore the possibilities of emotionally neutral observations, we are not thinking, exclusively, about the problem of constructing scientific reality perceptions. We are thinking, also, about the problems encountered by ordinary people, living and working, somewhere in the world, sharing many problems and possibilities with other members of their community. These problems would be a lot more manageable, (and our potentials a lot less confusing), if we could learn some of the techniques of emotional neutrality, because we would have a much greater say in the construction of a finely tuned behavioural response.

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Chapter 10

Content

Emotional neutrality, and a lessening of the egocentric bias in our points of view.
The difficulties encountered, when approaching other people with the attitudes and techniques of emotional neutrality.
The drawbacks of "strange", psychologising and patronising behaviour.
Clumsy behaviour-patterns, when responding to undigested scientific knowledge or non-understood religious instructions.
We have to understand ourselves, before we can understand others.
Frightened by what we see in a self-analysis.
The defensive facade.
The courage to be serious.
The conclusion that we are so amazingly alike.
Our biological heritage.
The need for a solid foundation for cooperation and communication.
Existential anxieties can be lessened by justified communal guidelines, encouraging attitudes of mutual trust and emotional neutrality.
Emotional contacts with relatives and close friends; a necessary experience for the ability to mature and understand.
The need to control emotions, and the fallacy of trying to suppress them.
The need to experience the satisfaction of accomplishing a task well.
Dedicating our life to a healthy social order; a widened concept of integrity.
The price of mockery is gladly accepted for the sake of encouraging this idea.

We have mentioned before, that the attitudes of emotional neutrality, or scientific objectivity, can help us to overcome, at least, to some extent, an egocentric bias in our outlook. If we recognise the existence of egocentric concerns, defensive attitudes, as well as the temptation to exploit the opportunities of an unfair advantage, we see, more clearly, the common denominators of human existence, and, this is the first step towards a process of mutual understanding. The potential benefits from the ability to function in an emotionally neutral frame of mind, arise, mainly, from the fact, that we are then able to recognise and control our egocentric instincts.

However, we should point-out, that a deliberate attempt to understand people leads, often, to a somewhat cramped and unnatural attitude, and, this attempt is easily mistaken for an attitude of condescension. It may increase, rather than decrease, frictions and hostilities. A studied attempt at being rational, reasonable or understanding, may easily fan feelings of suspicion and hostility, because "the other party" senses an unknown threat in this "strange" behaviour. Unless the behavioural relationships are carried-out swiftly and smoothly, with tact and a natural charm, void of any obvious "psychologising" or patronising attitudes, an attempt to guide one's behaviour with the techniques of emotional neutrality, backfires easily.

We should analyse the reasons for this, briefly, in spite of the fact, that we have elaborated these mechanisms before. In essence, the problem stems from the fact, that the attempts made to understand those people we do not like, are often clumsy and have nothing to do with an attitude of true understanding, because the impulse to act in such an understanding and patronising manner, is not based on a genuine feeling of sympathy and insight, gained by personal observations, but, it stems from a somewhat blind obedience of an ethical or religious code, which forces its adherents to adopt an attitude of "forgivenness", or "understanding".

However, any suppression of our natural reactions of aversion and dislike, because we are "told to love our enemies", leads to a somewhat neurotic and strained behaviour-pattern, because it is, in essence, based upon a belief, that we "know better", and, that we have to have patience with people "who are in the dark". Such an attitude is intuitively interpreted as non-genuine, untrustworthy or condescending by the party who is considered to be in the dark.

Therefore, let us not think, that it is easy to reap the fruits of emotional neutrality in our contacts with other people, and, we would do well to concentrate on an honest and genuine analysis of our own motives and emotions, before we start applying our newly found techniques upon the personalities of others. The greatest benefit of psychological insight lies in an increase in self-knowledge, as we become more able to recognise our own personality traits in other people. We are, then, able to acknowledge, that we have so many of the same trends and tendencies we dislike and condemn in others, and, with this recognition, we begin to reap the benefits of emotionally neutral observations.

Yet, this is not an easy task, and, most of us will succeed only partially in our efforts to carry-out an objective self-analysis, because most of us are frightened by what we see. It is often very difficult to see ourselves objectively, even, if we realise, that it is technically difficult to control our emotions. Even those of us, who are habitually running ourselves down, laughing at ourselves in a somewhat apologetic manner, may find it difficult to recognise, how we use these attitudes as a shield in self-defense.

We may come to see, that our attitudes are, in effect, a defensive facade; that they are not genuine. These attitudes are based on an effort to forestall criticisms or ridicule by anticipating it, and using it as a caricature. It takes guts to be serious about ourselves and the world, because we are so easily laughed at. It takes guts to be honest with ourselves, and, most of us have to be taught and guided, before we can reach a useful level of insight into our own behavioural characteristics.

We should not blame the many people who are totally ignorant of the mechanisms of their own behaviour. They are not responsible for their failure to understand themselves, because, in a confused society, skills disappear and defensive postures come easily to the fore. If we, as a social entity, have allowed ourselves to lose the essential principles of moral fortitude and self-analysis, and, if we have allowed the economic interests of the large corporations to play havoc with the emotions and appetites of the public, we can not blame the people for not knowing any better.

Again, I do not want to repeat my tirades against the ills of our modern societies. It is tempting to do so, since the painful features of decay and corruption are so evident and are begging for a correct diagnosis and a thorough treatment. I realise, that the diagnosis will require a long period of discussions and a process of gradually increasing awarenesses, because we have to agree with such a diagnosis, before we can consent to the many, rather unpleasant and unattractive forms of treatment that will be necessary to restore a measure of vitality to these affluent societies.

Our main theme, here, is the usefulness of the emotionally neutral attitude, especially, when observing ourselves, and, later, in the observations of other pople, as well as the society at large. We have to come back to the one fundamental development that must happen, if, and when, we can bring ourselves, collectively and individually, to an attitude of genuine self-scrutiny. The conclusion we will always reach, is the fact, that we all are so amazingly alike in the way we think, dream, eat, fight and desire. In spite of the many cultural differences and varying accents of importance, our needs are, in essence, the same, and, our behaviour is remarkably uniform, if we look at it from a distance.

Once we have delineated and acknowledged our common biological heritage, we will have taken a major step towards the goal of understanding ourselves and each other. Once we have a basic framework of ideas on which to build our conceptual structures, it will be much easier to progress along an evolutionary path of conscious developments, leading to a global integration of mankind. Once we have a foundation, we can start building our home, but, without a solid foundation, no conceptual structure is going to last for any length of time, nor, will it find widespread acceptance.

We will learn to recognise the universal struggle for dominance, as well as the need to balance the privileges and burdens of a position of dominance or leadership. We will recognise the conditions that ensure a viable leadership and a healthy social environment. We will recognise the problems associated with an increasing social complexity and the increasing importance of consciously formulated behavioural guidelines, as we realise, more precisely, why, and where, the range of biological instructions falls short in the guidance of a complex society.

We will recognise the need to replace the primordial struggle for dominance with the mechanism of essential equality and social justice, and, we will recognise the weakening effects of infighting. We will appreciate the role of scrupulous honesty and transparence in all social transactions, as well as the need for integrity of the leadership.

Here, we touch in a quick over-view upon a line of thought we have already explored, more fully, elsewhere, and, we recall, that such a line of thought can only be developed successfully, if we learn to use, more fully and systematically, the powers of emotionally neutral observations. Yet, we would delude ourselves to think, that it is always possible to reach this ideal situation of emotional neutrality in our dealings with others. Because our inter-actions have, so often, a strong existential significance, (where we are either encroached upon by the aggressive tendencies of others, or, where we, in our active and vigorous phase, are the challengers ourselves), we are subject to emotional reaction-patterns, in particular, if the behavioural rules and guidelines are not clear and explicit, and, if they are not enforced by an impartial judiciary and competent institutions of law-enforcement.

It there are clear guidelines, justly enforced, the progression of our position in society will be much more orderly and predictable, and, the need for defensive or aggressive behaviour will be lessened a great deal. The operation of acceptable and just behavioural guidelines, regulating the functions and social advancement of the members of society in great detail, would contribute markedly to a feeling of existential security, promoting attitudes of emotional neutrality.

However, such a development is an idealised asymptotic. It is a condition, which will serve as a goal that will never be completely reached, and, in the give and take with close relatives and friends, we will experience a natural range of emotions as we inter-act with each other. These experiences are necessary for the growth of our personality and the faculties of understanding.

In the contacts with those to whom we are close, the tendency for emotional behaviour-patterns will persist, and, these emotional experiences will be a valuable factor in our development. I do not want to give the impression that I advocate a completely emotion-less contact between the members of society. Not only, will this be impossible, but, it would be erroneous to consider the emotional reaction-patterns as "evil" or archaic. While we certainly need to learn to control our emotional reactions with the help of an emotionally neutral attitude of keen observation and intellectual analysis, we would impoverish ourselves, greatly, if we would try to suppress emotional behaviour completely. Regulatory control and a good grasp over the potential dangers of unbridled emotionality; yes. Complete suppression, or, an attitude of shame and unworthiness towards all emotional expressions; no.

While the emotionally neutral zone of observations will greatly facilitate the development of conceptual clarity and insight into the mechanisms of individual and collective behaviour, we still need to feel a measure of satisfaction and happiness with the accomplishment of a task well-done. The objective evaluation helps us to understand and see events in a broad perspective, but, we still need to acknowledge the existence and experience of emotional reactions, in others, as well as ourselves. We can not live without emotions, and, we would be dishonest, if we said we could.

In dedicating ourselves to work towards a better control over ourselves and our society, we encounter, again, the attitude of integrity, but, now, the concept has been taken-out of a specific artistic or scientific context, and, it has been placed in the service of a social ideal; of seeing and seeking beauty in the mechanisms of cooperation and tolerance.

It is easy to come to the conclusion, that a particular social or religious dogma represents the only just way of life, as well as the only absolute truth, but, we can also place our confidence and hope for the future of mankind in an attitude of dedication to genuine understanding and a flexible good-will. When dedicating ourselves to an apparently naive and vulnerable belief in the ultimate viability of the faculties of emotionally neutral behaviour, we may find the broadest concepts of integrity, as well as the most intense inspiration for a beneficial leadership.

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Chapter 11

Content

An emphasis on more pragmatic considerations.
A loquacious introduction?
The temptation to resort to short-cuts.
Looking at the end-result may facilitate comprehension.
The need to get our cultural code in order, and, to regulate the quality of education.
The development of a conceptual "tool box".
The role of guidance and authority for the developing personality.
A core of commonly shared concepts about ourselves and our reality perceptions.
Local cultural traits, seen as necessary tools to communicate and find a point of reference.
The viability of Homo Sapiens depends on the accomplishment of developing and teaching a globally acceptable image of reality.
Teaching coherent structures of coherence with the details left blank.
The contents of education.
The short-comings of contemporary educational curricula.
The link between the ability to think clearly, and, to appreciate beauty and integrity.

We should turn our attention to a more practical discussion of the relevance of scientific behaviour for everyday life. "Finally", you will say, and, at the risk that the previous pages will be considered a lengthy introduction, we will devote the remaining pages to more pragmatic topics, but, it will become apparent, that the preceding discussion is the foundation upon which this last part rests.

There is always the temptation to resort to a short-cut, before tackling a lengthy discussion, and look at the conclusions first. However, we realise, sooner or later, that we deprive ourselves from a comprehensive understanding, if we give-in to the temptation to skip the more theoretical parts. We will slide, imperceptibly, from understanding to memorising, if we practice these short-cuts frequently and fail to see the importance of a coherent web of causal relationships.

On the other hand, we may, occasionally, justify the practice of looking, first, at the overall conclusions or the practical results of a discussion, in order to facilitate the process of comprehension. It is often not easy, even, somewhat dull, to master a more difficult and complex theoretical background. If we use the overall conclusions as a beacon to help us find our way through a maze of arguments and ideas, the practice of looking first at the conclusions, is helpful, as long as we make the effort to master the whole structure, afterwards.

Indeed, the major practical application of our theoretical considerations centers around the question, how to foster the attitudes and skills of finely tuned behaviour in our young people, and, how to equip ourselves with the techniques of scientific analysis and synthesis in order to understand and teach a broad range of finely tuned behavioural responses. This may range from a recognised scientific discipline to the many professional functions and personal tasks we have to accomplish.

As youngsters, we start to build our "conceptual tool-box", even, before we enter school. We learn to recognise a large variety of objects, people, events and happenings, and, we learn to put a label on them. By virtue of the ability to name an awareness, we acquire this enormously important ability to recall, voluntarily, a large variety of mental images. Slowly, these images become more sharply outlined as a result of a process of dialogue with parents and neighbours, friends and relatives.

At the same time, the youngster starts to absorb the basic relationships between awarenesses. He learns, almost exclusively on the authority of someone else, to see awarenesses in a specific relationship to each other. He learns the principles of classification into categories of similarities. A conceptual framework is being laid-down, together with the acquisition of a cultural vocabulary, including the beliefs and behavioural rules that happen to be current in his social environment.

We see, therefore, that the youngster begins to fill his mind with a "cultural content". It is clearly important to teach a youngster, already from a very early age, those patterns of behaviour, knowledge and conceptual relationships, which we can and do share with all the other people in the world. If a youngster grows-up with a large content of specific or local peculiarities in his belief structure, he will lose the ability, or the inclination, to recognise the similarities of human existence. Obviously, the contents of a globally shared belief structure form the foundation for widespread communications and persistent attitudes of cooperation, where we recognise, that we share, essentially, the same needs and wants, and, that we resemble each other far more than we differ.

Certainly, it is unavoidable to use a locally prevalent language during elementary schooling, but, the entire period of schooling should be devoted to the teaching of generally accepted common denominators of human existence. A system of well-digested, clearly presented and coherent scientific images is idealy suited to lay the foundations for the ability to recognise shared traits and requirements.

There is nothing wrong with teaching youngsters, also, the characteristics of the particular cultural locale into which they happen to have been born. As we have mentioned, this will help to establish a point of reference and identification, and, this may be necessary for a normal development of the personality. However, a clear presentation of the widespread inter-dependencies between people will have a crucial influence on the ability to think clearly, and, to become a responsible citizen of the world.

It is essential, that we learn how to teach a coherent framework of understanding that applies to all fields of awareness and endeavour. In such a blue-print for comprehension, we will have to leave many details blank, otherwise, the overall lines of cohesion will be obscured. These objectives are not easy to realise, and, at times, when this whole complex of teaching methods and the cultural content of a society have become confused, such ideas seem to reflect a hopelessly naive and impossible dream. Yet, the moment we have developed a clearer understanding of the nature of knowledge, as well as the requirements for a globally relevant and cohesive program of education, (including a concerted effort to integrate cultural differences), the outlines for a teaching program of global dimensions will suggest themselves.

At the present time, we seem to be able to teach only fragments of scientific disciplines, without any significant degree of cohesion, and, the accent or motivation for learning has come to lie, at least, in our affluent societies, upon a narrow excercise in personal survival, which is acted-out in an atmosphere of competitive strife, rather than social integration. However, in our future teaching programs, we will see, primarily, an emphasis on the broad philosophical outlines of our awarenesses, where the inter-relationships of behaviour and knowledge, as well as the requirements of individual and collective existence, are taught in a coherent framework of ideas, capable of evoking a genuine sensation of beauty and understanding.

Whenever such a future framework for comprehension is compared with the chaotic diversity of the past, it should be possible to inspire in many youngsters and adolescents a genuine feeling of gratitude to be living then; after the turmoil of becoming a globally integrated society of mankind has passed, and, after the problems associated with keeping a sense of gratitude and appreciation alive, have been overcome.

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Chapter 12

Content

The easy anticipation of details, after a good grasp has been obtained of the overall conceptual structure.
Unfathomed possibilities for understanding.
The teacher as a leader of seminars and workshops, where the presented material is discussed and paraphrased.
Testing comprehension with the techniques of paraphrasing and "multiple choice" examinations; advantages and disadvantages.
The need to take into consideration the way teaching material is being presented.
The same material has to be presented in many different forms as a corollary to the reality of seeing the same field of observation from many different angles.
Guarding against the undigested assimilation of information.
The primary goal of all education is to develop the potentials of each student with an emphasis on the ability to think clearly and behave responsibly.
Problem-solving; different affinities for different people.
Problems may be intellectual, athletic, artistic or emotional in nature.
An attempt to outline a generalised framework for solving problems.
The role of intuition; "feeling our way".
The inter-play between intuitive and conscious faculties.
The role of "practice" in solving problems of skill.
Coaching athletic and artistic talents.
The pragmatic conceptual vocabulary of artistic and athletic fields.
Problems of the artistic creation and re-creation.

I like to stress, once again, that, teaching broad principles implies, necessarily, a nearly complete absence of details, otherwise, the conceptual structure would become un-manageable and un-overseeable. Later, when the overall conceptual structure has been mastered, it will be possible to fill-in specific details, and, a specific scientific discipline with its detailed imagery may then become the focus of study.

We should teach, first, with appropriate examples, a structure of general principles. This will let us get familiar with the possibilities of emotionally neutral observations and balanced arguments, when evaluating complex information. The techniques of evaluating complex data includes, also, the ability to design an experimental check against reality, in order to test a certain "theory" or interpretation of reality.

Once we have mastered the principles of scientific analysis and synthesis, the specifics of a particular discipline may unfold themselves with a remarkable degree of coherence, as we are developing a "feel" for the inner logic of a structure of reality perceptions, and, we are, then, able to grasp the scientific imagery easily and quickly. If details fit-in well within an overall structure of concepts, these details will be anticipated, because we can quickly place them into a structure of logical coherence. Then, we have recognised the principles of a logical order, because the specifics of a topic become part of the generalised model for the description of a scientific reality.

This is the way knowledge and information has to be presented to our future generations, and, with the help of a general model for coherent relationships, the grasp over reality may be so far ahead of our own abilities today, that we have a difficult time imagining, what sort of reality perceptions future generations may be able to experience.

It will become increasingly apparent, how important it is to formulate such an overall, commonly agreed-upon structure for the ordening and classification of our reality perceptions. Since the quality of the conceptual imagery for a learning youngster is directly related to the quality of the imagery presented, we see an urgent need to control the quality of education, and, we visualise, therefore, a program of standardised teaching methods and educational contents, which will be presented, on a world-wide scale, with appropriate technical and audio-visual aids. Of course, we assume, here, that the necessary political will has been mustered to institute such a coordinated program of world-wide education.

Teachers will then function, primarily, as coordinators of discussions during "question periods" These question periods will be organised after every formal presentation of an educational program. We have outlined these ideas before, but, we recall them briefly at this point, because they have a direct bearing on the question, how we are going to teach our youngsters, and, in particular, how we are going to teach future generations the techniques and skills of long-term survival under conditions that are worth living; reflecting the ideals of social justice and essential equality.

Obviously, we are going to need many practical "workshops", where students can practice their skills under the guidance of educational personnel. In such an environment, students will be given a variety of tasks. The first test that has to be carried-out, is an examination to see, whether or not a particular presentation has been grasped adequately, and, such an examination should take several forms. It should test the overall outlines of the conceptual structure by requiring a paraphrase of the presented material, and, it should also test for detailed knowledge, which can be done through a series of specific questions.

There has been a tendency in educational thinking to swing between these two methods of testing comprehension. At one time, the overall, paraphrasing or essay-type of question was favoured. Lately, under the influence of computerised techniques for evaluating and compiling test-results, there has been a tendency to scan an area of knowledge with a large number of questions that have to be answered by indicating a choice, often, from a number of possible choices.

The "multiple choice" method of evaluation tends to ignore the requirements of an overall conceptual grasp. Certainly, there are possibilities to test larger complexes of understanding with the technique of multiple choice examinations, but, one of the most important aspects of every teaching program is the ability to reconstruct a fairly large framework of inter-dependent images, and, this ability is nearly completely ignored and left under-developed in a multiple-choice examination, because the student does not have to reconstruct a structure of coherent relationships.

This shift away from the essay technique of examination with its more personal and subjective evaluation by the examiner, reflects, to some extent, our ignorance about the mechanisms of acquiring knowledge and insight. Many contemporary teaching programs use, not only, a multiple choice system for evaluating the learning process, but, the computerised presentation of teaching materials is also based on a succession of simple choices, where the student selects a choice from a "menu" of choices offered by the computer.

This type of presentation of teaching materials introduces a dependence by the student upon the manner in which the information is offered, and, once again, we are neglecting to develop the ability to grasp large, coherent structures of thought and insight, if we let ourselves become dependent upon a computer program for our learning processes.

In order to avoid the danger that students become dependent upon a specific method of presentation, we should offer the same material in widely different ways, varying the formats of presentation, as well as the emphasis or accent of many different details. Only then, will it be possible to distinguish between the method of presentation and the mental mechanisms we use when mastering a field of knowledge. Only then, will we be able to develop an appreciation for the many different ways a subject or topic may present itself, depending on our approach to it.

As teachers, we will have to guard, continuously, against the undigested and thoughtless acceptance of a reality perception, and, we have to stimulate, time and again, the critical and correlative faculties of each individual mind. A variety of methods of presentation, including a discussion of the subject by students and teachers in small groups, are necessary to ensure an adequate level of assimilation by a large majority of students. A discussion that initiates a lively debate or a series of questions, is the best way to make a subject truly familiar and comfortable for the students, and, it will help to bring-out the many possible differences in view-point and accent of nearly every perception of reality. This technique will also help to show the links with neighbouring fields of knowledge and awareness. Here, in a nutshell, we have the foundation for a truly inspired teaching experience.

We can not over-emphasise the importance of the fact, that the primary objective of an educational effort is the development of each individual's mental and physical capabilities, especially, in the field of critical evaluation, logical and coherent thinking, as well as the ability to analyse and reduce the complexity of a problem without an obvious solution, to a series of manageable steps that can be solved.

Nevertheless, we have to keep in mind, that people have very different endowments and affinities. While intellectual problem-solving will have a strong affinity for some, the ability to solve athletic, artistic or emotional problems may be the particular gift of others. In these fields, it is also important to teach, first, the general principles of the problems involved, before attempting a specific solution for a particular problem.

In order to clarify this somewhat hypothetial generalisation about problem solving, we should try to outline a conceptual structure that could be regarded as a blue-print for problem-solving in general. Where do we start? After having stated, somewhat boldly, the task of creating a general model for solving problems, we face, now, the specific problem, how to solve this task. Problem solving as a generalised outline, becomes, here, a specific problem for me, to be accomplished to the best of my abilities.

Let me start by correcting an impression I may have given; nl., the assumption, that every problem is solved by an analysis of the factors involved, and, by a conscious, deliberate strategy, solving the problems step by step, until we have reached a satisfactory conclusion of the problem as a whole. This is certainly not the case, since we solve many, if not most, problems, "intuitively". By intuition, we mean a process of searching for a solution along lines of "feeling". We "feel" our way around the various aspects of a problem, consciously analysing as we go along, but relying, to a remarkable extent, on the half-forgotten totality of our past experiences, in order to let us "feel" our way towards a solution.

The mechanisms of problem-solving are, therefore, partly subconscious, relying on half-forgotten experiences and previously learned solutions, and, partly, these mechanisms are conscious, assisted by a logical and verbalisable analysis. The synthesis of a solution is, therefore, a combination of a process of intuition and rational analysis. Interestingly, even, the solutions of mathematical problems depend on a somewhat intuitive application of learned rules, without quite knowing or realising, why we apply the rules the way we do.

In the problem-solving areas concerned with the mastery of highly developed motoric skills, such as acrobatics, athletics or the playing of a musical instrument, we rely, heavily, on "practice" to acquire the necessary skills. These skills are the solution to a problem we have set for ourselves; nl., how to execute a certain passage, and, how to "manoeuvre" our hands, fingers and arms in such a way, that the musical passage is executed to our satisfaction.

Certainly, during practice, we require the guidance of a teacher who has the skills we want to learn, and, who is able to explain to us, why we have difficulties accomplishing the tasks we have embarked upon. This may mean a detailed analysis of the required manoeuvre, as well as the physical and mental mechanisms involved, or, the teaching may be more "intuitive", where the teacher "shows us" how to do something.

The verbalisation and conceptualisation of a motoric problem is, often, quite detailed, reflecting a large body of individual experiences and learned techniques, but, the mental imagery remains pragmatic. Certainly, we have to embark on such a task with a sufficient degree of talent, (a curious mixture of natural affinity and intelligence, as well as a measure of motivation and will-power), before we are able to profit from the teaching process. Nevertheless, the accomplishment remains, largely, a function of perseverance and practice, supported by a measure of intuitive affinity and intelligence.

I would like to mention, here, that the artistic achievement, such as the playing of a musical instrument, has a dual level of problem-solving. We have, on the one hand, the "mechanistic", or technical, problems of executing the motions with our arms and hands in a way that allows us to play the notes accurately, easily, as rapidly as required, and with sufficient control to allow for a full range of expressive shading. This formidable task requires many years of devoted study, a high level of natural affinity, and, last, but not least, expert teaching. In addition, there is the problem of understanding the artistic creation one wants to perform and interpret.

A musical creation has to be re-created by an interpreting artist or group of artists, and, it has to be done in such a way, that it reflects, not only, the original intentions of the composer, but, it must become a happy fusion between the personality of the composer and the interpreter. This problem has no final solution, and, it may have many happy solutions, depending on the compatibility between composer and interpreter, the skill and competence of the interpreter, as well as the level of understanding and appreciation of the audience.

We will not elaborate, here, on these aspects, since we hope to develop them more fully in an essay on the "artistic expression", but, we mentioned these mechanisms as an example of complex problem-solving. The complex problems encountered in the search for a truly satisfying interpretation of a musical compsition involve a fortuitous fusion between exceptional talent, intuition or natural intelligence, dedication and perseverance, as well as a well-developed intellectual ability to break-down a problem in a variety of mental and physical steps that can be solved.

The emotionally neutral capabilities of analysis and sequential problem-solving have to be fused with a broad range of intelligent feelings and intuitive decisions, and, they have to be capped by an unwavering dedication to the ideals of beauty and truthfulness. Here, we are back, again, to the definition of integrity.

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Chapter 13

Content

Most problems are not so difficult.
Specific tools needed for specific problems.
The first step in solving a problem; an over-view and estimate of the difficulties involved.
Grasping a problem; what is it; what is happening, how do we find out.
Science is the construction of a conceptual framework of understanding.
Technology is the practical application of this framework of understanding by designing a variety of machines and instruments.
Technology requires essentially the same attitudes and techniques as the sciences.
Problems arising from the design and operation of man-made machines and instruments.
A border-line between science and technology; the investigation and manipulation of living systems; e.g., man and his societies.
Artistic problems rely on science and technology, as well as intuitive and emotional solutions.
The application of instruments to a field of investigation; the farmer and his plow.
A continuing need to review assumptions and re-work conceptual structures.
Scrutinising the foundation of our assumptions.
The unsatisfactory results of a precipitous approach to problems.

We have discussed, so far, only one example of problem-solving. Fortunately, not all problems are as difficult as the technical and artistic problems associated with the performance or interpretation of a work of art, and, most of us are not required to solve problems of such a complexity. Most problems can be approached with less effort, and have a greater variety of acceptable solutions. However, when trying to formulate a generalised conceptual framework that may be useful as a model to solve many different types of problems, we should not forget, that the solution may require a number of special "tools", or "approaches", that are specific for a particular problem.

The first task we face, is an overall assessment of "the problem". We should develop a "feel" for the general direction in which the solution has to be found. By analysing the overall structure of the problem we are confronted with, we may be able to translate the problem into a series of smaller, but connected problems, that are closer to a solution than the problem as a whole. For example, one of the simplest ways to outline a problem, (simple in terms of definition, but not necessarily in terms of a solution), is posed by the question; "what is it?".

The classification of an unidentified sense impression has to proceed along the lines we sketched before, when we outlined, how an unclassified item of awareness has to be described by qualities or similarities that are identifiable. If we still can not identify it after such an analysis has been completed, we may consult other people, in person, or, in their works, and, slowly, through a communal effort of clarification, often across many generations, we are usually able to make some head-way in our efforts to identify the unknown item of awareness.

Let us not forget, that the act of putting a "label of identification" upon a sense impression, may not necessarily increase our knowledge about the phenomenon. Often, the name, or label, is nothing more than a summary description, and, sometimes, it is nothing more than the name of someone, who has seen or described the unknown item first. The older medical literature is full of such essentially meaningless naming of "syndromes", where the name of an investigator or author has become attached to a collection of symptoms, which is, then, called a "syndrome".

We may also ask the question; "what is happening?", whenever the item of awareness has a predominant quality of change, and, is classified, in essence, as an event. If we face the same questions in regard to man-made objects or events, we are in the sphere of a technological diagnosis and treatment of problems, and, as a rule, the problems of diagnosis and treatment are somewhat easier, here, because the item in question has been put together by man himself, and, it can, therefore, be analysed more in detail, and with a greater degree of precision, compared to an item of nature, where natural selection and the forces of evolution have shaped its existence.

Scientific and technological aspects combine, intimately, in the activities of the human society, because we see a close relationship between the phenomena caused by nature and by man. As a rule, we reserve the concept of "technological research" to the diagnosis and correction of problems that deal, only, with man-made machinery and events. These problems do not incorporate an essentially unknown quality such as a human being, except for the fact, that inorganic materials are part of our natural environment and are only incompletely known, scientifically.

Nevertheless, it seems fair to say, that we are much more in the dark about such products of natural evolution as the "living organisation" or life-form; e.g., the human being and the societies of mankind. In man's societies, the problems associated with the existence of man-made "machinery", e.g., the economy or the laws of society, blend with factors and happenings that are still beyond our control, and, often, beyond our understanding, because we are, after all, not the creator of our own existence.

If we inquire about the nature or extent of a problem with the question; "how do we find out", we shift the problem to the tools at our disposal, and, these tools may be man-made instruments to carry-out a function, or, they may represent the mental structures of understanding and imagination, which may let us formulate a solution to the problems at hand.

The solution of a problem may, therefore, fall into the following categories. It may be exclusively concerned with the construction of a conceptual framework, and, this is, essentially, the hallmark of scientific solutions and interpretations of naturally existing phenomena. It may involve the development of a specific skill, such as in sports, acrobatics or figure-skating. And, a solution may depend on the design and construction of a machine, a tool, or a device, that can perform a necessary function, such as we see in the design, construction or repair of an instrument or manufacturing facility. This is, of course, the field of technology.

There are also more broadly defined and more variable problems and solutions in the fields of creating or interpreting a work of art. The problems, here, are partly intellectual and conceptual in nature, partly motoric or physiological, and, partly, in the field of technology, whereby a variety of instruments and devices are used to create a certain effect. Not surprisingly, the artistic activities and problems belong to the most taxing, but, also, to the most satisfying examples of what man can accomplish, yet the sensation of satisfaction that comes with an accomplishment, is available to all fields of endeavour.

Scientific analysis and synthesis have really taken-off after the development of all sorts of technological inventions, such as instruments that allow us to sense and register data which would otherwise remain inaccessible to our sensory systems. The application of an instrument to a field of scrutiny and the gathering of information, or "data", is often called "research", but it really is more like the activities of a farmer, who has attached a better and deeper blade to his plow, and, suddenly, he is able to turn-over a new layer of soil that was previously beyond his reach.

The profusion of data, obtained by the development of new investigative tools, requires a systematic categorisation, and, occasionaly, they will force a conceptual re-structuring of our classification systems, if the mental imagery at our disposal is inadequate to accomodate or explain all the new data. There is always a certain discrepancy between the data that have been obtained and the variety of interpretations that are current. The existing structure of understanding creates its own problems, because we always forget, that the explanation we have accepted as a scientific truth, is only a mental imagery that has been "composed" in response to the need to classify and explain a number of sense impressions.

Sometimes, the discrepancies can be solved by a mere refinement of existing concepts, but, occasionally, we require a much more thorough restructuring of our ideas. A fundamental restructuring of a framework of explanations can be done by re-evaluating the meaning of the available data, supplemented with a series of specific investigations, or "experimental checks", designed to clarify the meaning of certain data.

We like to emphasise, here, once again, the enormous importance we have to give to a careful scrutiny of our assumptions. As we have outlined before, an explanation always occurs by unraveling a problem into a series of concepts that are known and agreed-upon, and, similarly, the question or problem is re-formulated in terms of a set of assumptions; concepts and ideas, which we assume to be valid. Experience shows us, time and again, how often the entire effort of solving a scientific problem has been invalidated, because the structure of assumptions on which the formulation of the problem was based, turned-out to be erroneous.

In our problem-solving activities, (and this applies, not only, to professional scientific reasearch), we should analyse, carefully, the assumptions that underlie the perception of a problem and the apparent pathway for the formulation of a solution. Time spent in a careful look at the structure of a problem as it seems to present itself, and, an equally careful evaluation of the concepts and tools we use in grasping the essence of the problem, is time, well spent. Nothing is more likely to lead to failure and disappointment than a precipitous rush into an apparent solution. Precipitous action, without a proper diagnosis, does more harm than good, and, we all can point to numerous examples, where failures, or, even, disasters came-about as a result of poorly evaluated problems. Many problems are interpreted with incorrect assumptions, and, the efforts to solve these problems are often rash, ill-prepared and ill-conceived, superficial and emotional.

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Chapter 14

Content

The problems of habits, addictions, and the lack of will-power or self-discipline.
A variety of bonds and traps.
The problem, how to muster courage, energy, support and will-power.
The trap of narcotics, alcohol and other drugs.
The difficulties with accepting a realistic appraisal.
The relapse.
The importance of teaching our youngsters the values and rewards of an emotionally neutral attitude of scrutiny.
Emotionally neutral problem-solving is still the exception.
The surge of anxiety, and the tendency to indulge in hopeful expectations.
Soothing the feelings of anxiety.
Euphoria; paid-for by a distortion of the reality perception, as well as a diminished ability to finely tune our behaviour.
A "passionate" plea for the cultivation of rational behaviour; a paradox.
The beauty of control, mastery and conceptual coherence.

Finally, there is a special class of problems we should mention, briefly, because they are very important to many of us, especially, in our affluent societies. We are referring to problems that are created by habits, physical dependencies, strong desires or instinctive drives, which may lead us into ever greater difficulties. We all know the problems that arise, when we indulge in alcoholic drinks, drugs or wasteful spending habits, because they lead to the stress of a drug-dependency, financial enslavement, emotional tensions and frustrations, as well as a social decline. Our efforts to overcome these problems are often inadequate, and, there is an increasing level of anxiety associated with a slide in social standing and the deteriorating performance at work. Family relationships are strained, and, we lose our friends and social contacts, as we neglect our physical and mental well-being.

The crux of these problems does not lie in recognising or solving the problem intellectually, but, in mustering enough will-power and support to generate the considerable energy and self-discipline necessary to overcome these problems. Nevertheless, before we are able to see, clearly, the magnitude of the problem we have drifted into, we will have to overcome a natural reluctance to admit to ourselves the reality and depth of the problem.

Our first inclination is always to miminise the extent of our predicament, because a clear recognition of the fact that there is a problem, places upon us the responsibility to do something about it. The perception of what is happening to us, becomes ambivalent, and, we are subjected to wide swings in our moods and remarkable fluctuations in the evaluation of our realities. We feel happy, even confident and at peace with ourselves, whenever we are under the influence of a tranquillising and euphoria-inducing narcotic, and, we realise, then, how much more happy we are in this state compared to when we are sober and fully aware of the dismal realities of our existence.

The desire to escape a sense of hopelessness may be so great, that considerations of physical, mental and social deterioration become irrelevant, and, we are, then, dealing with an incurable form of drug-abuse which invariably ends in early death.

For most of us, this ultimate path to destruction is a horror, which galvanises us into a real desire to correct the problem, in particular, when a deterioration of mental and physical health hits home with a stark reality. To overcome a truly deep drug-dependency is a gigantic task that requires careful guidance and coaching. It also requires a detailed attention to will-power and a persistent focus upon this elusive and distant goal of a permanent cure, in order to avoid slipping back into the tempting state of euphoria and lack of concern.

Repeated bouts of depression, disappointments, discrimination and isolation, all provide a temptation to go back to the use of drugs and alcohol. This is an area of problem-solving that requires a detailed attention to the value of distant goals, as well as practical measures to provide sufficient and sustained energy to make a solution of the problem possible. It needs a life-long attention to the pitfalls of a relapse, and, we have to analyse, carefully, all the factors involved.

All the categories of problems we have discussed, including those of habits and drug abuse, have in common the fact, that an emotionally neutral scrutiny of the problem, including the assumptions that play a role in the perception of the problem, will enhance the likelyhood of finding a satisfactory solution. The method of analysing each problem systematically, with an emotionally neutral frame of mind, is an enormously valuable tool for all of us. The fruits are abundant, but, we have to acknowledge, that the attitudes of emotional neutrality and careful scrutiny require teaching, guidance, practice and self-discipline, hard work and tenacity.

These attitudes can only be an effective motivating force for our behaviour, if we have experienced, at one time or another, the benefits of such attitudes and practices. Therefore, we are back to the importance of teaching our youngsters the values and skills of these techniques, making sure, that they experience, at least, to some extent, the powerful and impressive emotions of satisfaction and accomplishment, which come with the successful mastering of a difficult task or problem. We have to teach our younger people, because adults have become set in their ways, and, they will find it very difficult to change their ways of perceiving reality and reacting to it.

As an epilogue to this discussion on the benefits of emotional neutrality, we should consider, briefly, the attitude of hopeful expectations, when trying to cope with a problem. Let us not forget, that the emotionally neutral method of solving problems is still an exception, at least, if we look at the way most people solve, or rather, "cope with" their problems, and, we see, that, few people have a significant degree of experience with the emotionally neutral technique of problem-solving.

We are thinking, here, about the defense mechanism that arises in response to a situation of stress, because our usual defense to such a problem is the adoption of an attitude of "hope". Hope is, in essence, a form of self-deception, but, the fact, that it is so widely used and has been engraved in our biological heritage, indicates, that it must have yielded significant gains. We have outlined the mechanisms of hopeful expectations before, and, we have discussed their significance for individual and collective survival. We will only compare, for a moment, the attitudes of hopeful expectations with those of emotional neutrality in the task of solving problems.

The reason, why an emotionally neutral approach to the tasks of problem-solving may not work, is the simple fact, that an objective analysis may cause a marked surge of anxiety, whenever a very bleak and frightening picture comes to the fore with such an objective analysis. We have discussed, before, the reasons, why the emotionally neutral method is primarily suited for situations of relatively mild and chronic stress, and, we have seen, that the usefulness of emotional neutrality declines rapidly, whenever we are dealing with much more severe situations of stress.

If there is no obvious way to overcome the problem and formulate a solution, the problem may be "thrown-out" as unsolvable, if there are no existential consequences in doing so. If, however, our well-being or survival is the essence of the problem, an emotionally neutral evaluation may, not only, fail to reveal a way-out, but, it may reveal many possibilities for a worsening of the situation. The perception that the situation is, likely, to get worse, rather than better, makes the emotionally neutral evaluation useless, when trying to resist severe levels of stress.

When we adopt an attitude of hopeful expectations, the mechanisms of perception begin to "filter" our sense impressions, whereby the slight possibilities for an improvement are brought into a constant and obsessive focus of attention. The filtering and accentuation of the positive aspects sooth our anxieties, but, hope induces, indeed, a somewhat euphoric feeling, and, it is not surprising to note, that it distorts a realistic perception of the chances for an improvement.

It is true, that strong feelings of anxiety are extremely detrimental to our ability to cope with a problem, and, we all know, how poor the behavioural performance becomes, whenever we are gripped by a feeling of panic. However, even if we control a feeling of panic with a more rational attitude of hopeful expectations, we still note, that this distortion may diminish our grip over reality. We may jeopardise our ability to survive by failing to discipline ourselves; by clinging persistently to an attitude of hope, rather than evaluating realistically, and, perhaps, somewhat painfully, our options.

We see, again, the importance of an effort and willingness to excercise a significant level of self-discipline and control over our emotions. The ability to call upon an attitude of emotional neutrality depends, very much, on our past experiences, as well as on the consistency with which we have been taught and have been rewarded for our efforts to master the technique of emotionally neutral observations.

The ever increasing importance of this technique and attitude of an emotionally neutral analysis and observation upon the long-term survival prospects of the human species, is a topic we have frequently, even, somewhat passionately discussed, and, we will refrain from repeating the arguments, here. The fact that it is impossible to reach absolute emotional neutrality, is underscored by the somewhat contradictory statement of making "a passionate plea for emotional neutrality", but, then, let us remember that, ultimately, the reason for accepting the validity of an emotionally neutral method of observation and analysis, is based upon the somewhat emotional sense of beauty, which comes with control, mastery and conceptual coherence.

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Summary

1. The roots of scientific behaviour.
   The short-cut of behavioural flexibility.
   A short review of evolutionary trends.
   Reflex-conditioning.
   Variability in the range of recognition-patterns.
   Cerebral classification mechanisms.
   Learning and reflex-conditioning.
   The fluid nature of the search for viability.
   Knowledge and behaviour.
   The role of scientific knowledge and expertise.
   The dangers of too narrow a focus of interest.
   The sense of beauty.
   Existential motives behind the desire to know.
   The "leit-motiv" of emotional neutrality.
   
   
   
2. Continuing the evolutionary thread.
   Finely tuned behaviour.
   The basic trade-off.
   The key to reproduction.
   Enhanced possibilities for adaptation through the sexual mode of genetic transmission.
   Rapid changes in life-forms, as well as environmental conditions.
   The role of imitation in behavioural adaptations.
   Form and content; genetic and environmental factors in the make-up of a behavioural response.
   Behavioural flexibility on the rise.
   The habitat of pre-human animals.
   The break-through of concept formation and symbolic communications.
   The "disastrous" break-through of human intelligence.
   Internal strife between the members of "Homo Sapiens"; a useful check against complete dominance and unbridled ecological exploitation?
   
   
   
3. Man's mastery.
   Behavioural fine-tuning requires also perceptual fine-tuning.
   A conscious framework for classifying conceptual awarenesses.
   Common denominators as classifying principles.
   The classification of similarities in events; "causes and effects".
   Scientific methods for classifying sense impressions.
   Logic; defined as a form of dialogue.
   Calculation; when it is easy to decide, whether or not a logical step is completely right or completely wrong.
   Deductive reasoning, and classification on the basis of similarities.
   The confused meaning of the word; "is".
   Logic and reasoning rely upon a commonly agreed-upon system of reference.
   The causes of misunderstanding; irrelevance and a deliberate blurring of logical reasoning.
   Logic as a tool to delineate an observation.
   When something can not be recognised as familiar.
   The unknown, described in generally accepted abstractions and qualities.
   
   
   
4. The limited conceptual vocabulary of the early societies.
   Their reactions to the "unknown".
   The role of the attitudes of reverence and awe.
   Why blurring the meaning of a concept may be useful.
   A fortunate combination of existential security and clarity of mind.
   The perceived threats of an attitude of intense scrutiny.
   The larger society, and the possibilities for more independent thought-patterns.
   When behavioural fine-tuning is "halted" by comfortable certainties.
   The stress experienced by a structure of beliefs.
   The motivations behind efforts to design a new way of looking at reality.
   The dangers and benefits of exploring the unknown.
   The "mitotic division" of a growing nomadic society.
   Existential motivations show a close correlation between behavioural fine-tuning and the drive to explore.
   The satisfaction of an accomplishment.
   The "intuitive" scientific method.
   
   
   
5. The value of emotional neutrality and refined reality perceptions.
   Why an increased use of "cause and effect" concepts leads to a greatly increased predictability of events.
   The gradual contraction of the realm of anthropomorphic force-fields into the concept of a "Prime Mover".
   The question, where God came from.
   The role of a sense of mystery.
   An inviolable law; something can not come from nothing.
   Energy can not come from non-energy.
   No anthropomorphic forces outside the human will; a fundamental scientific conclusion.
   The difficulties of accepting this reality perception.
   The disappearance of the concept of the "Prime Mover".
   A definition of the scientific method.
   The persuasiveness of the scientific approach, and the potentially horrifying results of some scientific achievements.
   Scientific behaviour is based on the globally shared biological heritage of mankind.
   The weight of observation and verification.
   The balanced argument.
   Increased predictability and manipulability; the persuasiveness of experimental evidence.
   A reminder that none of these factors argue in favour of an absolute reality.
   The many layers of conceptual reference systems are becoming a target for scrutiny and verification.
   The beauty of a successful structure of thought.
   The beauty of understanding.
   The dangers of using a discovery for narrow, egocentric purposes.
   The dangers of unbridled technological applications.
   The difference between what we need and what we want.
   Similar methods are used in science and technology.
   Rapid technological developments; a major contributor to our most serious social problems.
   The seeds of salvation and devastation are sown together, as always.
   
   
   
6. The potential for understanding ourselves.
   The direction of social developments.
   The solutions of justice and self-discipline.
   How to build a reality perception we all can accept.
   Naive hopes and dreams.
   Patience, careful analyses, and tenacious efforts to construct a conceptual synthesis.
   The need to grasp complexities in balanced and comprehensive, but, nevertheless, manageable idea-structures.
   A contracting sphere of concern, resulting from fear and distrust, and, the enlargement of this sphere of concern by the attitudes of trust and good-will.
   Eradicating corruption and inefficiency through transparence and responsibility.
   The power of beauty, honesty and integrity.
   A rich crop of altruism, kindness and concern.
   Perpetuating the web of fear and distrust.
   An emotional synchrony of harmony and loyalty is an effective tool for maintaining social cohesion in a small society.
   Perverting an attitude of good-will by a collective attitude of hostility towards "the outsider".
   
   
   
7. Scrupulous honesty, balanced reality perceptions, and a devotion to justice and truth.
   A definition of integrity and honesty.
   A sense of beauty, evoked by ease of understanding and a transparent structure of explanations.
   The importance of evoking a sense of confident mastery for our young people.
   The need to improve the quality of education.
   The rigid guidelines of a specific ideal.
   The paradox of finding beauty in the methods and achievements of behavioural neutrality.
   The return on an investment of hard work.
   Achievement and beauty.
   Unsuspected vistas.
   Personal interpretations, and the ability to see these vistas through the work of dedicated and integer people.
   The growth of critical faculties and the rise of a deeper understanding.
   The lure of personal success.
   A genuine accomplishment, inspired by beauty and understanding, will always be recognised; at some time, somewhere.
   The continuing search for an honest expression.
   
   
   
8. The experience of beauty, and the attitude of integrity.
   The need for discipline and self-discipline.
   The road towards far-off accomplishments.
   The tools of guidance and discipline.
   The roots of social significance.
   Losing traits from a genetic or cultural code.
   The disastrous results, when beauty and integrity disappear.
   The irrelevance of a "virtuoso".
   Intellectual aspects in the appreciation of art.
   Emotionally neutral observations and attitudes in the implementation of our social contracts; possibilities and limitations.
   Our anthropomorphic "will", and the assumptions of science.
   Physics and meta-physics.
   Science was founded in the world of tangible and measurable realities.
   Science and the living organisation; a slow success.
   The essence of the living and non-living organisation of matter-energy.
   A backlash of suspicion and hatred for everything science stands for.
   The possibility to grasp human behaviour in emotionally neutral concepts.
   
   
   
9. A measure of encouragement.
   Positive and negative stimuli.
   An apparently huge gap between animal and human behaviour.
   Growing evidence for an evolutionary link between animal and human life.
   The remaining gap can be bridged, and will help us to understand ourselves.
   The role of the "free will" in the analysis and synthesis of our behaviour.
   The balance between positive and negative stimuli, and the concept of a "free behavioural choice".
   Reasons behind the reluctance to accept the concept of a "free will".
   The relationships between a "free will" and a series of positive and negative stimuli.
   The subjective experience of a free choice, and the voluntary effort to assign significance to a sense impression.
   Emotional neutrality; an important tool in everyday life.
   
   
   
10. Emotional neutrality, and a lessening of the egocentric bias in our points of view.
    The difficulties encountered, when approaching other people with the attitudes and techniques of emotional neutrality.
    The drawbacks of "strange", psychologising and patronising behaviour.
    Clumsy behaviour-patterns, when responding to undigested scientific knowledge or non-understood religious instructions.
    We have to understand ourselves, before we can understand others.
    Frightened by what we see in a self-analysis.
    The defensive facade.
    The courage to be serious.
    The conclusion that we are so amazingly alike.
    Our biological heritage.
    The need for a solid foundation for cooperation and communication.
    Existential anxieties can be lessened by justified communal guidelines, encouraging attitudes of mutual trust and emotional neutrality.
    Emotional contacts with relatives and close friends; a necessary experience for the ability to mature and understand.
    The need to control emotions, and the fallacy of trying to suppress them.
    The need to experience the satisfaction of accomplishing a task well.
    Dedicating our life to a healthy social order; a widened concept of integrity.
    The price of mockery is gladly accepted for the sake of encouraging this idea.
    
    
    
11. An emphasis on more pragmatic considerations.
    A loquacious introduction?
    The temptation to resort to short-cuts.
    Looking at the end-result may facilitate comprehension.
    The need to get our cultural code in order, and, to regulate the quality of education.
    The development of a conceptual "tool box".
    The role of guidance and authority for the developing personality.
    A core of commonly shared concepts about ourselves and our reality perceptions.
    Local cultural traits, seen as necessary tools to communicate and find a point of reference.
    The viability of Homo Sapiens depends on the accomplishment of developing, and teaching, a globally acceptable reality perception.
    Teaching coherent structures of coherence with the details left blank.
    The contents of education.
    The short-comings of contemporary educational curricula.
    The link between the ability to think clearly, and, to appreciate beauty and integrity.
    
    
    
12. The easy anticipation of details, after a good grasp has been obtained of the overall conceptual structure.
    Unfathomed possibilities for understanding.
    The teacher as a leader of seminars and workshops, where the presented material is discussed and paraphrased.
    Testing comprehension with the techniques of paraphrasing and "multiple choice" examinations; advantages and disadvantages.
    The need to take into consideration the way teaching material is being presented.
    The same material has to be presented in many different forms as a corollary to the reality of seeing the same field of observation from many different angles.
    Guarding against the undigested assimilation of information.
    The primary goal of all education is to develop the potentials of each student, with an emphasis on the ability to think clearly and behave responsibly.
    Problem-solving; different affinities for different people.
    Problems may be intellectual, athletic, artistic or emotional in nature.
    An attempt to outline a generalised framework for solving problems.
    The role of intuition; "feeling our way".
    The interplay between intuitive and conscious faculties.
    The role of "practice" in solving problems of skill.
    Coaching athletic and artistic talents.
    The pragmatic conceptual vocabulary of artistic and athletic fields.
    Problems for the activities of artistic creation and re-creation.
    
    
    
13. Most problems are not so difficult.
    Specific tools needed for specific problems.
    The first step in solving a problem; an over-view and estimate of the difficulties involved.
    Grasping a problem; what is it; what is happening, how do we find out.
    Science is the construction of a conceptual framework of understanding.
    Technology is the practical application of this framework of understanding by designing a variety of machines and instruments.
    Technology requires essentially the same attitudes and techniques as the sciences.
    Problems arising from the design and operation of man-made machines and instruments.
    A border-line between science and technology; the investigation and manipulation of living systems; e.g., man and his societies.
    Artistic problems rely on science and technology, as well as intuitive and emotional solutions.
    The application of instruments to a field of investigation; the farmer and his plow.
    A continuing need to review assumptions and re-work conceptual structures.
    Scrutinising the foundation of our assumptions.
    The unsatisfactory results of a precipitous approach to problems.
    
    
    
14. The problems of habits, addictions, and the lack of will-power or self-discipline.
    A variety of bonds and traps.
    The problem, how to muster courage, energy, support and will-power.
    The trap of narcotics, alcohol and other drugs.
    The difficulties with accepting a realistic appraisal.
    The relapse.
    The importance of teaching our youngsters the values and rewards of an emotionally neutral attitude of scrutiny.
    Emotionally neutral problem-solving is still the exception.
    The surge of anxiety, and the tendency to indulge in hopeful expectations.
    Soothing the feelings of anxiety.
    Euphoria; paid for by a distortion of the reality perception, as well as a diminished ability to finely tune our behaviour.
    A "passionate" plea for the cultivation of rational behaviour; a paradox.
    The beauty of control, mastery and conceptual coherence.

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