THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MULTI-CELLULAR DEVELOPMENT







A Study in Thought

sa042



by





Marius Heuff

Chapter 1

Content

The relevance of multi-cellular life.
The concept of creation, and the evidence for evolutionary change.
The art of recognising a valid portrait of "the truth".
Mechanisms of emotional and intuitive identification.
The hope, that an intellectual truth may, eventually, stimulate a widely spread sense of beauty.
Extra-polating insights about multi-cellular organisations to the societies of mankind.
Man's awarenesses and concepts are evolving into sophisticated perceptions of reality as a result of careful observations and the use of sense-enlarging instruments.
A belief structure, seen as a biological product.
Why it is difficult to identify with primitive belief structures.
Realities were always "real", regardless of their place in the history of reality perceptions.
Our own efforts will soon fade into history and blend with previous efforts that are often rejected as erroneous or superficial.
The drive to search for a satisfactory perception of reality.
Difficulties arising from the multi-cellular nature of our individual existence.
Questions, and their occasional absence.
The price to be paid for a non-reflective and thoughtless existence.

Please, do not think, that the development of multi-cellular existence does not concern you, because, you and I, we all, are enormously complex societies of cells, which have learned, somehow, to live in a symbiotic harmony. How such an organisation came-about; how the cells overcame their primary programming of competitive behaviour; how nature's search for viable existence possibilities solved the numerous contradictory requirements for a society of competing cells, concerns us intensely, because it is reasonable to expect that an understanding of these processes will contribute to our self-knowledge. And, an increase in self-knowledge will show us, also, in what way we are remarkably similar, and, which characteristics make each one of us into a unique human individual.

Reader, if you believe, strongly, that the Good Lord created man, and, that the art of putting together such a community of cells was the Lord's problem and should not concern us, then, I urge you to take another good look at the observations man has made over the past few centuries. If your mind is open to questions and new ideas, you will come to the conclusion, that the belief in a created reality was logical, and, even, necessary in the past, but, a stubborn adherence to creationist beliefs in our day and age leads only to confusion, as well as persistent questions that cry-out for a plausible answer.

If you still can not accept any of the principles of natural evolution, this writing is not for you, because we will not concern ourselves with the arguments in favour of evolution, but, if you have some knowledge of the life-sciences and the evolution of the planets, the solar system and the Universe, the approach, taken here, will not appear strange.

Throughout the history of human existence, man has looked for experiences, events and utterances to give him some insights about the basic and ever-recurring themes of conscious awareness. This is the reason, why those, who have grown-up in an Anglo-Saxon heritage, still recognise the relevance of the Shakesperean plays, because this artist was able to portray the tragic and comical features of human existence in such a way, that we still recognise this portrait as a valid and valuable contribution to our insights about human behaviour.

Philosophical insights have rarely enjoyed a similar measure of persuasiveness and appeal, because the religious explanations of human existence have always been far more successful and satisfying to a majority of people. The reason, why the artistic portrayal of the human being, together with the authority of religious guidance, has always been far more persuasive than a cold, clinical analysis of observations and the construction of a logical framework of coherent concepts, relates to the fact, that, most of us still obtain our insights and moments of recognition, primarily, through a mechanism of emotional and intuitive identification.

Yet, is it naive or unreasonable to expect, that, eventually, many people will be moved by the beauty of an intellectual insight? Is it possible, that the main thrust of persuasiveness will shift from the recognition of a life-like portrait to the recognition of an inspiring idea? Can we see some evidence for a development into this direction?

Probably not, because in times of turmoil, man's rational insights appear to be extremely vulnerable to decay, and, they have a tendency to disappear quickly, but, then, the need to reconstruct and integrate our experiences, as well as the history of past generations, will, inevitably, rekindle the powers and abilities of careful observation and comprehensive thought. The very fact, that the capabilities of rational thought exist throughout the entire spectrum of the human species, means, that the rewards and benefits of such behaviour have been sufficiently apparent to the criteria of natural selection to allow an evolutionary development and genetic encoding of such a potential to take place.

We state confidently, therefore, that, eventually, mankind, or, at least, a majority of the living members of the species of mankind, will recognise the relevance of seeing ourselves from an evolutionary point of view. The need to find comprehensive, satisfying and thorough solutions to the problems of existence will force us to develop a measure of intellectual skill and conceptual self-discipline, which will enable us to grasp the significance of the evolutionary imagery and make it into a useful tool.

Yes, the problems associated with living in harmony and inter-dependence have an immediate relevance and significance for us all, as we are trying, ever more urgently, to cope with increasing population pressures and dwindling resources. Not too far in the future, many of us will eagerly explore the possiblities of understanding and insight, which can be gained by looking at ourselves as a multi-cellular organism, or a society of cells, and, we will eagerly, or, even, somewhat anxiously explore the remaining opportunities of existence with the insights gained from an analysis of symbiotic possibilities.

We will have to apply evolutionary insights to the problems of individual and social existence, because terrestial circumstances will have sharply deteriorated, and our ecological niche will have become rather precarious. These changes will have come-about as a result of an abundant human population, as well as the cumulative effects of unwise and thoughtless behaviour-patterns, which failed to pay sufficient attention to the fragile terrestial conditions that made life on earth possible.

We have said enough as a pre-amble to justify a focus of attention upon the problems of multi-cellular development, but, let us mention, also, that we intend to focus, not so much on the scientific imagery of multi-cellular existence, but, rather, on this web of contradictory and complex force-fields, which led, eventually, to a living, multi-cellular entity. We will also extrapolate generalised conclusions from this field to the realm of our own existence, and, we will explore their significance for our efforts to obtain a high level of symbiotic harmony, which will be an ever more urgent, yet elusive, requirement for future societies. We will see, that, in the future, viable human existence requires a balance between individual and social needs, as well as a bold, confident and trustful web of inter-dependencies in order to exploit, fully, the possibilities, and avoid the pitfalls of our precarious existence.

You may conclude, that this is meaningless talk and wishful thinking, and, that it is idle hope to believe, that the insights of evolutionary development and multi-cellular organisation will have any relevance for our social existence in the future. Perhaps, this may be so, but, let us not discard the opportunity to obtain useful insights, or the need for a unified or near-unified state of social integration, before we have explored the ideas that have revealed themselves in the symbiotic organisation of multi-cellular life-forms.

When man started to organise his first vague and hesitant awarenesses as verbalisable or symbolically representable perceptions, man made necessarily use of the primary sense impressions he obtained with his naked senses. Man began to name common observations and experiences, such as objects and situations or events, and, we have described, before, a tentative imagery of these matters. We have discussed, how we visualise these conceptualised and communicable awarenesses, eventually, to have become classified with the help of secondary abstractions acting as regulating or generalising principles. We have traced the development of these organising structures, which became themselves verbalised as structures of belief.

The increasing sophistication of our abilities to verbalise awarenesses makes it clear, that man exprienced a gradual discovery of "the reality" or "the truth", and, only much later became it possible to "handle" the experience of "differing truths", when these confident structures of belief came into close contact, and, often, into intense conflict with each other. The discovery of the mechanisms of sense impressions and other cerebral functions made it possible to take some distance from the experience of "believing in a truth", and, it showed us, how a structure of belief comes into being. The concept that a structure of beliefs developed as a "biological product", may become a powerful tool for behavioural adaptations, for the individual as well as an entire community.

However, such an interpretation of our reality perceptions will loosen the connection between a belief structure and the truth or reality it represents. This introduces the possibility of adopting a relativistic point of view, allowing us to formulate overall principles of perception and interpretation. These principles of perception and interpretation seem to indicate, ever more clearly, that structures of belief are a product of the communal experiences of the past generations, and, we know, now, that these structures of belief depend, also, upon the talents of individual members to form concepts and verbalise awarenesses. This capability of developing a belief structure is shared by all of us as part of our biological heritage, but it may be developed very differently, when comparing one person to the next, or one community with another.

It is difficult for us, living at the present time, to visualise, with any degree of accuracy or authenticity, the patterns of belief that existed, before this remarkable extention of observations took place, made possible with the help of scientific instruments and recording devices. Our reality perceptions are now so saturated with complex ideas that arose as a result of prolonged and sophisticated developments in observation and thought, that we can not really separate the concepts that are based entirely on primary sense impressions from those relying on extensive observations with the help of a variety of instruments.

Anthropological investigators have described many small and rather isolated communities, where people still live nearly completely untouched by the processes of cultural cross-fertilisation. These mechanisms of cultural cross-fertilisation began many thousands of years ago, and, they are generally considered to mark the beginnings of "Civilisation". These processes of cultural development were a result of dense populations and intensive contacts between many diverse ethnic and cultural groupings, and, these contacts led to the art of writing and the first instruments of observation, several thousand years ago.

If we try to form a mental imagery of the beliefs of "primitive" people, who did not take part in these cultural innovations, we run into great difficulties, because we can not forget or abandon our own belief structures or methods of interpreting reality, and, therefore, the "study" of such a primitive culture reflects, invariably, a contemporary interpretation of such a culture. It is, therefore, virtually impossible for us to get an accurate "feel" for the way such a primitive society interpreted reality. Their reality perceptions appear to be dominated by a system of "willed" or anthropomorphic forces, and, these willed forces permeate the entire observable reality; from human beings, to animals, to nature, as well as the realm of the dead.

We see nothing of the grasp over nature that is reflected in our modern sciences, and yet, we have to come to the conclusion, that the synthesis of the world of observable phenomena into a unified structure of reality perceptions was accomplished at almost all levels of cultural development, even, in these primitive, pre-civilised societies. This means, that such a synthesis of ancient reality perceptions must have had a great deal of existential significance.

Indeed, we see, how questions about the validity of a reality perception or interpretation were frowned upon, because these communities did not possess the cultural tools to handle a variety of convictions or an individualised perception of reality. A question would, then, indicate a tacit admission that one was unsure about the validity of a reality perception, and, uncertainty would create confusion and anxiety.

The systems of cohesion and the "explanatory" connections of early structures of belief are, often, so strange for us, that we have a difficult time acknowledgeing, that, indeed, for certain people and for certain civilisations in the past, these structures of beliefs were the only reality perception they had. It is difficult for us to imagine, that such a primitive reality perception was the only structure of concepts they had to work with. Nevertheless, their reality interpretations were as real for them as our contemporary reality images are real for us.

We have discussed these matters before, and, we should not elaborate them any further, since we only want to emphasise two aspects that are going to be relevant for our discussions in this essay. First of all, we see, that a reality-image is always based upon a long period of cultural development, and, that our contemporary reality images are, therefore, an inextricable mixture of observations that have been obtained, largely, by past generations with the contribution of many thousands or, perhaps, even, millions of anonymous observers. Secondly, our reality perceptions are a mix of primary sense impressions, and, impressions and observations gained with the help of sophisticated instruments. At the same time, we have to remind ourselves of the fact, that all our concepts and ideas have been taken-over from a cultural pool that is relevant in our social environment.

Our reality perceptions constitute, therefore, a synthesis of specialised, and, often, highly technological and sophisticated observations by people who have devoted a large amount of time and effort, often a life-time, to analyse their observations and synthesise a coherent imagery of their particular reality perceptions. Certainly, all the major contributions to the sciences have taken a life-time of effort from countless individuals, before these scientific images and ideas could become a part of this cultural pool of knowledge, where they could be contracted into a few words that can be manipulated by most of us with a minimum of effort.

Our contemporary sense of grasp has been made possible by countless generations of keen observers who have lived before us, but, seen in a historical perspective, there is no reason to doubt, that several generations hence, our ideas and beliefs will again seem curiously outmoded or short-sighted, provided, of course, that our cultural heritage remains more or less intact, and, that it will be available as a basis to work from for future generations.

It is sobering to realise, how strongly our contemporary beliefs are influenced by the efforts and ideas of past generations, but, it is also sobering to realise, that our particular efforts, now, will quickly fade into a historical background for those who will come after us. It is therefore fair and reasonable to make fully use of the available innovations of observation and thought, if we try, once again, to satisfy this age-old instinct, which makes us search for a comprehensive picture of our own existence.

It is reasonable, and, indeed, unavoidable to make use of the modern ideas and concepts about living existence, which show us the origins of the living organisation, the cell, as well as the fascinating possibilities of existence that have been explored by symbiotically living colonies of cells. These cellular colonies have been given names, a long time ago, but, they were, of course, conceived as macroscopic entities, and, the cellular nature of their existence, including our own existence, is a rather recent development of our grasp over reality.

For a number of generations, the knowledge that our own body consists of a large number of individual cells, as well as the products made by these cells, has been widely accepted by most people, but the full implication of these concepts has not made itself felt, as yet. The full impact of this fact should raise the question, how I can be I, with a feeling of an inalienable entity and indivisibility, if I am nothing more than a gigantic colony of cells, which have, somehow, managed to find a remarkable degree of cohesion, inter-dependence and viability. This question arises, inevitably, as soon as we abandon the simplistic and now obviously erroneous idea, that the structure of such a multi-cellular individual was created in its entirety by a Divine Intelligence. How can I explain my conscious awarenesses and existence as an individual entity on the basis of a colony of cells?

This is a fascinating starting point for a specific way of looking at ourselves, and, it may have more relevance for future generations than it has at the present time. This sort of question is still somewhat irrelevant for us, because most of us are not even aware of the possibility, nor the need, to ask such questions. The even more difficult questions about the origin, development and organisation of such multi-cellular colonies follow closely, and, we will try to use them as a foundation for the construction of an interesting and relevant perception of our existence.

I know; most people do not search for a clear reality image of themselves, nor, of man in general. They are too busy responding to their primary instincts, and, they are looking for ways to satisfy their desires and ambitions. For such people, any sort of philosophical reflection seems to be a waste of time; an irrelevant and idle play with thoughts and ideas, but, sooner or later, we will encounter obstacles in our search for gratification and the fulfilment of our goals and ambitions. Sooner or later, we will fail; our strength declines, our challengers will be gaining on us, and, unless we have prepared ourselves for this inevitable decline in our powers and prowess, we will face the same hardships, the same nagging questions as countless generations have experienced and suffered from in the past.

If we opt for a life of thoughtless behaviour, relying upon our instincts and an un-critical, slovenly acceptance of our cultural guidelines, together with the dictates of existing circumstances, we will, not only, be poorly prepared for disease, disaster and old-age, but, we will have lost an opportunity to savour some of the joys of understanding, as well as a chance to give meaning to our years of decline. After all, the display of understanding and the giving of advise are the traditional methods whereby older generations find meaning and earn respect.

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Chapter 2

Content

The concept of a "possibility of existence".
The evolution of the terrestial environment.
Daily fluctuations in the level of solar energy, and the capture of solar energy in the form of high-energy electron bonds.
Complex inter-dependencies between proto-biochemical reactions.
The enhancement of a possibility to exist.
Dissipating an energy-gradient, seen as the basic force behind the possibilities of existence for the living organisation.
A stable state of existence, and the quality of "fluidity".
A run-down to the lowest level of energy.
The slipperiness of biochemical reactions and their products.
Unstable circumstances for inorganic molecules and atoms.
All atomic elements, except hydrogen, are forged inside huge stars.
The phenomenon of radio-active decay, or spontaneous nuclear disintegration.
A near-balance between centripetal restraints and centrifugal pressures.
The decomposition of an organism after death.
The life-form, seen as a channel to dissipate an energy-gradient.
The concept of entropy.
The organisational key of the genetic code.
Mechanisms of cellular renewal through an a-sexual or mitotic duplication.

Before we consider the more specific problems associated with living cells that have organised themselves into a symbiotic community as a multi-cellular "possibility of existence", we should review the development of the single cell. On previous occasions, we have reviewed the mechanisms that lie behind the evolution of life, and, we have considered, how the given, physical constants that were present in the early phases of terrestial development, provided the possibility for luke-warm water to exist, as well as the large variety of atomic elements. We have described the influence of a constantly fluctuating source of sunlight, divided into a cycle of days and nights as a result of the rotation of the earth around its own axis.

We saw, how the narrow temperature and gravitational range of terrestial conditions allowed for the existence of water in a liquid form, as well as the constant evaporation and condensation of water into hot rains, together with the occurrence of frequent lightning storms. We have discussed the likelyhood of polymerisation for biochemical precursors, which were molecules that had found a possibility to form in the pre-biological phase of terrestial developments, and, which may even have been present in some of the inorganic substances from which the earth took form.

Volcanic activity on the early earth must have been considerable, especially, after the earth's crust had cooled-down sufficiently to allow for the existence of water as a liquid. Hot gases were evaporating from the molten lava. The remnants of the original gaseous atmosphere were saturated with water-vapour and the atmosphere was quite different from the one we have, now. Free oxygen was almost certainly absent, because we think, that the oxygen-content of our present atmosphere came-about as a result of the evolution of life.

We have speculated, how the origins of cellular life must have come from a vast and widely spread primordial or protoplasmic sea, where a gigantic natural experiment was taking place in search of existence possibilities for labile and fragile chemical substances. At least a part of the solar energy was being captured in the form of high-energy electron bonds, which started to function as an energy-source for an enormously vast and complex pattern of biochemical chain-reactions. These biochemical reactions existed as small rivulets that were dissipating the energy captured in the form of high-energy electron bonds.

We visualise these reactions to have occurred in both directions; driven "upwards", so to speak, when solar energy absorption drove the reactions towards a higher energy-level, while, at night, many reactions would reverse, giving-off most of their energy in a gigantic spectacle of proto-bioluminescence.

Slowly, this reversing flow of solar energy in the form of high-energy electron bonds began to fuel a myriad of biochemical existence possibilities. Eventually, these rivulets of biochemical chain-reactions would develop "branching points", where the energy-flow could be tapped to fuel other chemical chains. In this way, it is possible to visualise how complex inter-dependencies were created. Clusters of mutually inter-dependent reactions could now find a possibility of existence, as long as they remained spatially closely together, enabling them to tap the stream of a dissipating biochemical or proto-biochemical energy-flow.

We do not want to elaborate this picture here, because we have done so before, but, we want to emphasise the idea, that the cell is, in essence, a unit of complementary and inter-dependent but fragile and labile chemical reaction-patterns. This cellular unit found, in this distant and nebulous past, a possibility of existence by virtue of the fact, that this conglomerate of biochemical reactions was able to channel, continuously, a flow of energy through its pathways of energy-dissipation. It could repair the entropic processes of decay and divergence, which are inherent in the existence of dissimilar and reactable substances in close proximity.

The cellular unit possessed, also, the ability to renew its entire organisation by safeguarding a code of genetic instructions. This code of genetically encoded instructions could direct the activities of the system towards a process of duplication or reproduction. In this process of duplication, the genetic code would direct the chemical machinery of the cellular unit to build-up a replica of itself from the constituents that were present in its environment. Of course, this could only be done, if a suitable form of energy, as well as an adequate supply of building-blocks would be available.

The main idea, here, is the fact, that the integration of a large conglomerate of chemically active and reactive substances could find a way of organising itself in such a way that it would provide an extended possibility of existence to the complex entity as a whole, and, by inference, an extended possibility of existence for each individual pattern of reaction, or labile chemical coumpound. Such an organised complex or conglomerate of chemical reactions would remain then intact, and remained, thereby, available as a channel for the dissipation of the biological energy-gradient that had been created by the formation of high-energy electron bonds.

The biochemical reaction-patterns found, therefore, collectively, a possibility to continue their existence under a far wider range of circumstances, compared to the possibility to remain in existence within a less organised, more individualised mode of existence. A single biochemical reaction-pattern would only be possible in this protoplasmic primordium, if it happened to find a suitable donor and recipient of energy. Otherwise, the energy-flow would be halted; the biochemical reaction-pattern, and, with it, the existence of many labile chemical compounds would come to an end.

A substance, be it organic or inorganic, is a piece of matter, representing a certain amount of energy, and, it can only exist, if the disruptive tensions of its internal parts or external force-fields are constrained by force-fields that prevent such disruptive changes from taking place. For example, a simple, inorganic molecule of any substance in our immediate environment, shows, that it is not changing anymore. Its existence is stable. The configuration of atoms and electrons is such, that there are no further possibilities for change. The "easiest" or lowest energy-potential or condition of existence is represented, therefore, by the situation in which it exists.

All chemical substances on earth have "run-down" to their lowest energy-levels, and, a change in the existing chemical configuration requires a "step" over a threshold. This means, that energy has to be found, or added, before such a change can take place, (e.g., the addition of heat, before the combustion of wood can take place.). Certainly, many substances will react easily when brought into contact with each other, but, under the local circumstances in which an element or molecule find itself, it has reached its lowest possible level of energy already, and, therefore, all possible reactions with neighbouring substances have already taken place.

This is comparable to an amount of water in a container, where the fluidity or slipperiness of water molecules ensures, that they position themselves in such a way, that there does not exist, anymore, a gravitational energy-gradient, which would make these molecules slip in relation to each other. Biochemical reactions have this same "slipperiness" as water under prevailing terrestial conditions, meaning, that they will run-down to a stable compound, unless this "running-down" towards a position of stability is constantly compensated for by an energy-input.

If we put water in a leaky container, we can keep the level in the container above the leak, provided, we compensate, continuously, for the leakage or sepage of water by replacing what has been lost. Similarly, a water-fall or rapid can only persist in a stable form, if the water flowing over and out of the rapid is continuously replaced with water flowing into the rapid or water-fall.

The essence of inorganic matter under terrestial conditions, is the fact, that it exists in a stable form. Any change into another form would mean, that energy has to be added, (like heat), or, that the circumstances of existence have to be changed, (like dissolution into a liquid). We say, then, that a stable possibility of existence exists for such inorganic matter, but, it is clear, that the definition of a "stable possibility of existence" depends upon the circumstances.

The enormous pressures and temperatures within the interior of a large star, give rise to a situation, where none of the terrestially stable molecules would be able to maintain their existence. Their electron bonds would be broken; many electrons would be stripped from their shells, and some nuclei would be unable to resist fragmentation and change into a different atomic configuration. Such a nuclear change, or transformation, is often associated with essential changes in physical characteristics, and, a part of the mass of the disintegrating nuclei will be transformed into elementary particles or high-energy electro-magnetic radiation, if they do not become part of a newly synthesised nuclear structure.

Actually, at this point in our understanding of elementary, sub-atomic physical mechanisms, we visualise, that, probably, all terrestial atomic elements, except hydrogen, have been "forged" by such "fusion processes" inside gigantic stars. These stars have gone through a quick evolution and a catastrophic explosion, early in the formation of our galaxy. The solar system and its planets would then be considered as a second or, perhaps, even, third generation of stars, or, rather, a single, medium-sized star together with its satellites, (the planets, which did not reach a volume or mass necessary to become a star). These smaller stars and planetary concretisations developed much slower because of their much smaller mass, and, consequently, the increase in gravitational pressures was not as steep as in a very large star.

Some of the heavy elements that were forged by a variety of nuclear transformations within previously existing large and unstable stars, became part of the debris or inter-stellar dust from which the earth took its origins, and, that is the reason why some of these naturally occurring terrestial elements are unstable. These elements are therefore likely to disintegrate spontaneously. This process of disintegration is called "spontaneous radio-activity", which may take place at markedly varying rates. Such a radio-active disintegration is associated with the dissipation of various forms of radiant energy, whenever such a nucleus falls-apart and changes into a more stable format.

Again, this is an example of the search for a possibility of existence. For an unstable nucleus, the local circumstances are such, that there is barely enough of a threshold to counter-act the disruptive tensions of the intra-nuclear parts, or "nucleons". If the threshold would be totally inadequate to hold the nucleus together, such an element would decay very rapidly, often within a fraction of a second, but, sometimes, there is a near-balance between centri-petal restraints and centri-fugal disruptive pressures, and, it may take thousands of years before half the number of atoms within a certain quantity of such radio-active elements have changed into a more stable form.

All biochemical reactions are labile, indicating, that they would disappear, if there is no constant compensatory influx of energy and building-supplies. Most organic substances that have been built-up by biochemical reactions, are also not very stable, and, they would fragment into their original inorganic building-blocks, if the biochemical reactions that build or restore these products would disappear. This is the reason, why a cell, or the body of a multi-cellular organism, decomposes after death, until, eventually, a skeleton of essentially inorganic materials remains.

This lability of existence characterises all chemical processes of the living organisation, (with the exception of those structures that are laid-down, primarily, for the purpose of rigidity and mechanical protection). This extreme lability of bio-chemical products and reaction-patterns is a liability but, it also has its potentials. The whole aspect of fluidity, adaptability, or, a response to subtle changes in the surrounding force-fields, would not be possible, if these biochemical reaction-patterns could not be influenced by minute variations in the circumstances and conditions of the environment. The configuration of a stone does not change with terrestial fluctuations of the circumstances. Whether it is warm or cold, dark or light, wet or dry, the molecular configuration of a stone remains the same.

A life-form is, essentially, a channel for the dissipation of captured solar energy, and, in this way, it resembles a river, dissipating the gravitational energy of water that has been captured by a high-lying reservoir. Just as the river or rapid requires a constant flow of water through its channels in order to exist, (and react to changes or carry-out work, such as the movement of pebbles, sand or the wheels of a turbine), so is the cell a structure that can change shape, do work and react quickly to changing circumstances, provided, it can find a suitable energy-source and divert some of the energy-flow for the never-ending requirements of maintenance and repair.

If we look at the early cell, (before the differentiation between predatory and vegetative life-forms took place), we see, that such a cell was able to capture a small fraction of the solar energy it was exposed to. This energy was captured by the formation of high-energy electron bonds, and, later in the evolutionary history of the cell, a definite and well-organised small organ, or "organelle", was formed, where specific biochemical reactions would be taking place. This represents an intra-cellular organ, or organisation; e.g., the chloroplast, which is a cellular organ, where solar energy is, ultimately, transformed into high-energy carbo-hydrates.

The capture and collection of high-energy electron bonds fuels a biochemical "rivulet" that is capable of forming complex carbo-hydrate molecules, built-up from water and carbon-dioxide. At the same time, oxygen is released as a by-product, accounting for the presence of free oxygen in the atmosphere. The carbo-hydrate molecule represents a stored form of energy, because, during the period of darkness, it is again broken-down and fuels, then, the biochemical processes that are constantly necessary to prevent a fatal form of disorganisation, or "entropy", from taking place. It was essential for the search of stable possibilities of existence to develop a method for storing energy in order to bridge the gap of night-fall, when no solar energy is available to fuel the biochemical rivulets and their complex societies of co-existence. These societies of co-existence are ceaselessly experimenting with the possibilities of organising themselves into a coherent, viable and enduring entity of existence.

A cell must have the capability to renew itself, because, eventually, every life-form will be damaged beyond repair. Over a period of time, the biochemical organisation starts to deteriorate. Waste products are building-up. Certain biochemical injuries can not be repaired. The cells "wear" biochemically, but, if the whole machinery is renewed by forming an exact duplicate of the original cellular organisation, biochemical mechanisms can be effectively restored and an efficient channel for the dissipation of the biological energy-gradient will have been retained.

Nature developed a method of duplication we can still observe in contemporary cellular units. This process of reproduction includes the duplication of the instructions, or genes, of the genetic code, especially those, which are responsible for the organisation and manufacturing mechanisms of the cellular biochemical processes, or "metabolic activities". The "genes" of a cellular unit are contained in strands of a special type of durable materials. This organisational key is jealously guarded against deterioration or damage, and, it is usually locked into a protective casket. This is done by forming a helix of complementary strands of nucleic acids, containing the essential genetic sequences in between them. During a cell's existence, small areas of this helix may open-up, allowing for a partial "transcription" of a segment of the genetic code, and, we visualise that such a "transcribed zone" functions, then, as a "messenger" or instructor for the manufacturing processes of the cell.

At the time of cellular renewal, the entire strand opens-up. It makes a copy of itself by the formation of complimentary halves on each strand. The amount of genetic material has then been doubled. The code has remained carefully intact, and is identical to the original code. The strands of genetic material, or "chromosomes", move to opposite sides of the cell, preserving, carefully, a complete set of genetic instructions for each half of the cell. The cell then divides itself, and, the missing protoplasm is subsequently synthesised from the building materials that are present in the protoplasmic environment.

We have to assume, that the process of cellular division is under strict genetic control, and, we must assume, also, that each half of the divided pool of genetic material has identical genetic instructions and sufficient protoplasmic machinery to allow it to build itself up to the size and efficiency of the original cell.

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Chapter 3

Content

The phenomenon of rejuvenation.
The incomplete renewal of cellular constituents during the lifespan of a cell within a multi-cellular organism.
Enlargement and growth.
The convergence of the concepts of growth, enlargement and reproduction.
The over-crowding of uni-cellular life-forms.
The mechanisms and consequences of a state of competitive strife.
The evolutionary main-stream of the living organisation.
Symbiotic, parasitic, predatory and saprophytic life-forms.
Does cellular gigantism still exist?
Using a source of abundant materials.
The many forces that play a role in an ecological balance.
Details of the state of competitive strife.
An apparent stability, and an essential lability.
Cellular specialisations.
The swing between the threat of starvation and the possibility to reproduce.
The emergence of a "cellular elite".

One of the most remarkable aspects of a-sexual cellular reproduction, is the complete rejuvenation that takes place during this process. Both halves of the cell seem to be identical and both newly formed cells show a remarkable vigour and elasticity that is typical for a newly formed organism. How this happens is not quite clear, and it is not clear, whether or not all biochemical production sites have indeed been renewed. Perhaps, some of the old production sites remain intact and have been divided between the two former halves of the parent cell.

We can be sure, that the organisational pattern of the protoplasm has been carefully maintained, but the building-blocks have largely been replaced. Even during normal metabolic activities within a cell, a large number of building-blocks can be replaced, at least, such seems to be the case for many of the cells that form part of a multi-cellular individual. The ageing processes of the cell within the multi-cellular individual continue, in spite of attempts to renew and repair the metabolic machinery during cellular life, and wear and tear products accumulate, in contrast with the apparently complete rejuvenation that takes place after cellular division of the single-celled organism.

Highly specialised cells of multi-cellular organisms do not seem to participate anymore in this process of renewal and cellular division. The high level of cellular specialisation seems to bring-about the inevitable loss of the ability to divide and reproduce.

Here, we see one of the reasons, why a complex multi-cellular organisation, such as a human individual, is doomed to die, in contrast to the cellular rejuvenations that take place with each division. However, let us remind ourselves, that a cell, which has rejuvenated and duplicated itself by this method of mitotic division, can not possess a specific identity, because the essence of the original cell has been divided over its offspring.

Under favourable conditions, a cell can divide and undergo a process of rejuvenation, but, it can also grow and merely increase in size. An increase in size is, however, often, a prelude to cellular division, and, it appears, that such an increase in size introduces an element of instability. Nevertheless, the most remarkable increases in size are, nearly always, secondary to demands for a specialisation in function. For example, a cell may enlarge because of the storage of certain products, or, as a result of the development of certain capabilities, such as contractility or electrical conductivity.

The marked differences in size between multi-cellular species' is due, largely, to differences in the number of cells that form, collectively, a particular multi-cellular individual, since the size of the cellular components remains roughly the same, regardless of the size of the multi-cellular organism. The growth or enlargement of a multi-cellular organism, means, therefore, primarily, an increase in the number of cells, and, we see, how the concepts of growth and multiplication converge. Growth of a cell, means, also, the multiplication or accumulation of certain internal constituents, again, indicating the near-synonomity between the mechanisms of accumulation, multiplication and growth.

Have we grasped the essence of cellular existence by describing the properties of genetic and protoplasmic reproduction, energy-expenditure, storage of energy, or "food", the wear and tear, as well as the renewal of existing biochemical machinery? We should, probably, emphasise, once again, the intimate connection between the fragility and lability of the biochemical processes, on the one hand, and, the capabilities of smooth adaptations, on the other. We have elaborated these correlations extensively before, and, we will, therefore, only mention, here, this essential trade-off between fragility and adaptability.

Our main objective in this essay is a discussion of the problems and possibilities associated with the processes of cellular symbiosis and task-differentiation. So far, we have traced some of the background necessary to explore these concepts and mechanisms in detail. The development towards a multi-cellular existence was a monumental step in the exploration of existence possibilities by living organisms, and, we are probably correct to believe, that this development took place as a result of over-crowding in those shallow, lukewarm seas, where countless billions of uni-cellular organisms were exploring the possibilities of their particular ecological niche to the full.

Let us think about the conditions and circumstances that must have developed, after the successful break-through of cellular life. Every inch of suitable space would have been occupied by cells. Of course, this space was confined to luke-warm waters; not too cold and not too hot. It must also have been confined to the upper layers of the seas, because sunlight was necessary for the processes of photo-synthesis. Quickly, a situation arose, where further growth and multiplication became off-set by a steady stream of cellular deaths, because some organisms would, eventually, lose-out in the competitive struggle for existence. Perhaps, some of them sank too deeply into the cooler and darker regions of the seas, or, they were washed ashore and dried-out. We can characterise this situation by the concept of "competitive existence", but, we should ask ourselves, what the consequences were of such a state of ceaseless competition.

We assume, that all cells were virtually identical. We have good reasons for this assumption, because the cellular mechanisms that are still in use, today, are remarkably similar from one cellular species to another. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume, that only a handful of different biochemical reaction-patterns were incorporated into the successful cellular units that arose from the protoplasmic primordium, billions of years ago.

We are justified, therefore, to consider the great majority of the successful cellular life-forms as being virtually identical to each other. As an aside, we should mention, that some life-forms utilise other energy sources, e.g., by reducing or oxidising substances in an anaerobic environment, but, the evolutionary main-stream took place through life-forms that were able to capture solar energy. Many of the presently existing microbial species' are highly specialised organisms that have lost, by and large, the capability to capture solar energy, because they have found a parasitic, saprophytic or predatory way of life. Our attention is focussed, here, upon the period in terrestial history, (re-created as a probable course of events in the imagination of our minds), when the search for viability had not yet explored the possibilities of parasitism, predation, scavenging, or multi-cellular symbiosis.

Of course, I realise, that his mental imagery is merely an excercise of the mind. It is highly speculative, and, it must be far from complete. We will not even try to guess the order in which the behavioural specialisations we mentioned, may have taken place. We know, that these various behavioural adaptations are still with us today, and, obviously, they have proven to be durable. We will also speculate, to some extent, about the likelyhood of cellular gigantism, in analogy with the gigantism of many multi-cellular organisms.

Let us go back to the problems of competitive existence. If a population of identical organisms lives in close proximity to each other, competing for the available energy-supply and building-blocks, useless waste-products build-up fast, and, the criteria of viability will, inevitably, favour a tendency to utilise this pool of waste-products. In other words, even a small adaptation in the biochemical operations of a cell, may lead to some use for the abundantly available waste-products. Such a development would immediately be rewarded with an increase in viability, since now, a rich source of energy or building materials has been added to a reservoir that was becoming scarce and in great demand. At the same time, the removal of a part of the waste-products will also reduce the noxious or toxic effects of the accumulation of these products.

However, we are running ahead of our discussion, because it seems much more likely, that a differentiation of uni-cellular organisms took place on the basis of the mechanisms of predation, long before the development arose of symbiotic multi-cellular life with its complex and complementary biochemical inter-dependencies. Let us review, once more, the forces that play a role, when a successful cellular life-form explores, to the full, the existence possibilities within a particular environment. We assume, (primarily to facilitate the mental grasp of the visualised complexities), that, indeed, all the organisms are identical uni-cellular life-forms, developed from the same parent cell. The genetic instructions of each cell are identical, and, this must mean, that the existential requirements are also identical.

As soon as the population increases, some sort of an equilibrium develops, because the population density increases rapidly to the point, where limitations develop in the supply of energy and building-blocks. The organisms will then have reached a state of "competitive stalemate". The population density stabilises as the number of cell-deaths is matched by a similar number of cell-divisions. (We assume, here, the presence of a constant supply of energy and building-blocks, barely able to maintain a stable population of cells in this particular ecological niche).

As soon as the population "stabilises", the number of new cells, (produced by cells that are successful enough to divide), is off-set by the cells that become weak, and, eventually, die and disintegrate. However, the constant rate of cell-deaths also releases building-blocks back into the environment, and, these building-blocks are, most likely, somewhat different from those present before cell deaths became a constant feature of this ecological niche. These products are part of the waste-products we discussed before, and, they will, increasingly, exert an influence upon the metabolic mechanisms of the living cells.

It is, therefore, difficult to visualise a situation that is really stable, even, if we consider a nearly constant, homogenous population of very similar, or, perhaps, even, identical cells. The nature of the life processes prevents a condition of true stability, unless the population begins to diverge. If some cells develop the capability to remove certain fragments from decaying cells, (the saprophytic development), and others, removing some of the waste-products by utilisation, (metabolic diversification), the counter-pressures of harmful waste-products will be relieved, and, one variable in the equation of the conditions of life will have been removed.

Certainly, waste-products are likely to be removed by diffusion and currents as well, and, indeed, we see, that the life-processes are favoured by the presence of a water current; either as a naturally occurring event, where the organisms make passively use of a flow of nutrients, or, later, when the mechanisms of cellular specialisation allow a water current to be generated, artificially, by the living organisms themselves. (The creation of an artificial or relative current may be accomplished by a whip-like appendage of the cell, or "flagellum". With this appendage, the cell can propel itself through the water, creating a current relative to its own position, or, it can set-up a current of water around itself, and later, through itself, whenever the organism has evolved into a primitive, multi-cellular organism, such as a sponge).

Indeed, it is much easier to visualise some sort of a stable ecological niche, if energy and building-blocks are constantly carried towards a particular location, and, if waste-products are washed-away from this area by the same current. The debris from dying or dead cells is then also washed away, whenever it can not be used, and, we come back to our mental excercise, where we visualise, what happens to a population of identical organisms living in a state of "competitive existence".

A balanced situation, means, that, all healthy cells are inhibited to some extent because of a state of chronic competition, and, a stable population density, means, that, each living cell exists under less than optimal conditions. Their drive towards reproduction is slowed-down as a result of these competitive pressures, and the possibility to reproduce depends upon small fluctuations in the availability of energy or food. Literally, the organism can only fulfill the biochemical drive towards growth and cellular division, if it is able to deprive another cell of food and energy. This deprivation will reach quickly the point, where a weakened cell is going to die, removing itself as a consumer of food and energy from the competitive scene.

The death of a cell means, not only, that the energy and food, normally consumed by this cell, are now available to the remaining cells, but, a dead and decaying cell has many substances that are potentially useful to the remaining cells, and these substances contribute to the existential requirements of the living cells.

This means, then, that all cells have a tendency to slide towards one of two extremes; on the one hand, the possibility to obtain sufficient food and energy to make cellular duplication possible, and, on the other hand, the danger of being deprived of food and energy to the point, that life becomes untenable.

Cells that become somewhat "sluggish" or defective in their metabolism, (not having had the opportunity to regenerate their machinery by a cellular division), are likely to loose-out, and, we see, therefore, how an apparently stable condition of "zero population growth", together with a constant rate of energy-consumption, still leads to a constant tension or stress for the living organisms. Each cell has to reach, somehow, the ability to rejuvenate itself with the processes of cellular division, but only a fraction of them will be able to do so.

Generally speaking, at any particular time, only half the population, (the strongest and most capable cells), will reach the stage of cellular division, while the other half dies and makes room for the new generation. However, if the genetic instructions for the cells are not completely identical, or, if some cells have been slightly impaired in one way or another, we will see the emergence of a cellular "elite", capable of acquiring sufficient energy and building-blocks to keep reproducing, while the others fade away and die. If this is the case, the population will quickly be replaced by descendants from this cellular elite, and, then, the remainder of the original population will have lost its viability.

There is, therefore, a constant lability at work in this apparently stable population of living organisms, because competitive existence will favour, quickly, every slight advantage in behaviour or metabolism, while each slight disadvantage, means, certain death and inevitable extinction.

In addition to the tendency for viability to shift, in a purely competitive mode of existence, to an elite and its offspring, there are also other mechanisms at work, where viability can be restored, if the initial struggle for a competitive advantage has been "lost" to a slightly superior life-form. For example, if a cell "learns" to use a slightly different form of energy or building-block, such a cell may be able to retain viability. Since it explores and uses a slightly different source of energy, competitive pressures ease-off, as the cell-population begins to diverge into a variety of slightly different cell-populations, each behaving, living and metabolising in a slightly different manner.

The apparent stability of a homogeneous population, existing under static conditions is, therefore, in essence, an illusion, and, it is, in reality, a labile and constantly shifting "pressure cooker" of tensions, because of this tendency for a small elite to dominate and reproduce, and, because of the tendency of cells to diverge into slightly different metabolic pathways, as they start to explore slightly divergent possibilities of existence.

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Chapter 4

Content

The relentless pressure towards territorial expansion by a successful life-form.
Population pressures, and the lure of aggressive gains.
Territorial expansion and the trend towards divergence.
An inevitable step towards predatory behaviour-patterns.
The animal; an obligatory predatorial form of life.
Inter-dependence on a level of equality; symbiosis.
Metabolic and functional inter-dependencies, seen as forerunners of multi-cellular existence.
A review of uni-cellular existence.
An eternal arms-race.
A "locale" and a "habitat".
The assumption, that many more species' have become extinct than we know of.
The search for security in a large size; gigantism.
The importance of a flow of water past or through a living organism; contractile proteins and the flagellum.
Major evolutionary innovations occur unobtrusively in species' under severe existential pressures, and the full significance of such innovations may only become apparent many species' later.
Why successful organisms are, necessarily, "conservative".
Any development into a specific direction opens-up potential liabilities.
An example; the affluent human society.
The importance, and weakness, of the cultural code.
Human extinction; a tragedy?
The sponge.

So far, we have assumed, that a population of cells was strictly limited to a certain "locale", but, in reality, such is never the case, and, every successful life-form will expand its domain in order to relieve the pressures of competitive existence. Distribution over a wider territory facilitates the encounter of differing circumstances, and, this may lead, also, to a lessening of competitive pressures on the basis of a divergence in form, function and behaviour.

Territorial dispersion is, of course, primarily, a means to relieve the immediate pressures of competitive strife; by securing a larger territory to support the requirements of all these living organisms. But, there are other mechanisms to alleviate the tensions of a competitive stalemate. Some cells learn to make use of dead or decaying cells, or, rather, they learn to make use of their building-blocks, but, they may also be tempted to siphon-off some of the protoplasmic constituents, even, when the dying cells are still alive.

From here, the step towards predation seems inevitable, because, eventually, not only, a dying or decaying cell, but, any cell that is weaker than the predator cell, may become a source of energy and food. Predation has indeed become such a successful mode of existence, and, it has become so widespread in all sorts of life-forms, that the behaviour of predation is the primary characteristic of the entire animal kingdom. Animals have to be "killers" of other life-forms, be they animal or plant life.

Such a predatory way of life became quickly so specialised, that these organisms became "obligatory predators", since they lost the ability to photo-synthesise their own building-blocks from solar energy and inorganic materials. Many of the smaller, multi-cellular animal life-forms became dependent upon their "host", without the need, (or any existential advantage) of killing them, since such a host could provide them with a life-long supply of food. This is the "parasitic" form of animal existence.

Our main interest will be focussed upon yet another form of existence, or, rather, co-existence. We have discussed the emergence of the tendency to diverge into different ecological niches, defusing, to some extent, the tensions of competitive strife. Certainly, this does not protect a life-form from the pressures a predator may be able to exert upon its existence. The search for different ecological niches is exhibited by the predatory life-forms as well, since predators will also seek to reduce competitive tensions and pressures between them by a process of ecological divergence and territorial expansion.

Inter-dependence of existence on a level of essential equality may take place, if cells are using each other's by-products or functional specialisations. If this happens, we have witnessed the emergence of a behavioural unit that includes more than one cell. The development of mutual inter-dependence at a level of essential equality allows a greater population density, (requiring a greater overall flow of energy through the system), but, in stead of competitive tensions between identical cells, a system of complementary life-forms shows, how different groups of cells begin to rely upon each other's products and functions. This creates a force-field of cohesion, rather than one of mutual repulsion. (The latter is the force-field behind the phenomenon of territorial expansion during a situation of competitive strife).

It is tempting to see this develoment of inter-dependence as a fore-runner of multi-cellular existence, but, it is probaby only one of the facets that brought cells into a symbiotic relationship. The major accent of multi-cellular development is centered, not so much, upon a metabolic inter-dependence, but, on the development of divergent and complementary functions. The state of mutual inter-dependence that follows from this trend is based upon a process of task-differentiation or specialisation in function, rather than metabolic divergence.

Let us look, again, at the general ideas behind these phenomena, which come to the fore, as soon as cells live together, but perform complementary tasks and functions. Before we can explain, satisfactorily, how task-differentiations became possible, we will have to review the great variety of specialised modes of existence that developed in the uni-cellular organisms, in particular, in the "animals", or predatorially behaving species' of uni-cellular existence.

A specific differentiation in the way cells function, reproduce or behave is noticeable in all uni-cellular species', and, we have mentioned the primary distinction between plant and animal life. At the stage of uni-cellular specialisation, the boundaries between predatory and vegetative life-forms are still vague. Nevertheless, many uni-cellular species' show a distinct trend towards the utilisation of preformed building-blocks, requiring scavenging or capturing techniques. This is the road towards animal behaviour, and, the development of the faculties of mobility or locomotion, leads, eventually, to the loss of the ability to photo-synthesise.

Predatory species' also participate in an endless round of defensive adaptations. Like an eternal arms-race between giant nations, nature is searching, continuously, for better ways to survive, and severe predatory pressures may exist between predators, too. In other words, the hunter may also be hunted, and, this inter-play leads, often, to rapid adaptations, as well as a continuous search for survival by the hunted species. The successful hunter also develops problems, e.g., over-population, resulting from its own evolutionary success, as well as the problems of overcoming ever more sophisticated defense patterns of its prey.

We are beginning to develop a "feeling" for the overall force-fields that played a role in the diversification of the living organisms, and, these forces still play a role in the balance between living organisms and their relationships with the environment. Circumstances vary a great deal, not only, from area to area, but, also, for species' that occupy a similar "locale" but a different "habitat". This is possible, when species' make use of different methods to obtain their energy and building-blocks. Ecological niches can, therefore, overlap and may, indeed, occupy the same geographical territories.

We tend to form our mental imagery about what happened during the early stages of evolution of the living organisation on the basis of species' that still exist and can be studied, but, we also know from the fossil legacy of the much larger animals, that the extinct species' are likely to out-number, by far, the still living species'.

We have no reason to doubt, that the same holds true for the uni-cellular organisms, but these organisms do not leave any fossil traces; at least, so far, we have not been able to detect any, and, we can only speculate, in general terms, about the enormous variety of uni-cellular life-forms that must have existed in that dim and distant past. Probably, the multi-cellular development was a quiet and obscure experiment by the forces of natural selection, and, this experiment would have been hardly noticeable, if a "Scrutinising Intelligence" would have been present in the early, formative stages of life's evolution on earth.

There is still a very large variety of functions and forms visible in the still living uni-cellular species', but, we postulate, that there was also a tendency towards the formation of large uni-cellular organisms in an effort to enhance viability. This trend towards the formation of very large members can be seen at all stages of a successful evolutionary break-through, and, we should, therefore, not be surprised, if we would see some evidence for the trend towards "gigantism" in a few of the remaining uni-cellular species'.

Let us recapitulate, briefly, the mechanisms, whereby a life-form can search for an increased possibility to exist. Gigantism is one method. It is a relatively simple method, because it does not require a particularly intricate set of encoded instructions. We have discussed the ability to move as another example in the search for enhanced viability. The ability to move may increase a flow of water past or through an organism, or, it may propel the organism through a body of stagnant water. This brings-about the possibility of avoiding a predator, and finding a prey that is also active or mobile, etc.

Then, there are a variety of specialised functions which may harden a surface or stiffen a structure. These mechanisms may protect an organism, or, make the digestion of food particles more efficient, such as, e.g. the presence of pebbles in the stomach of certain birds. Or, specialised functions may increase the ability of the cellular protoplasm to "flow". There may be an increased contractility of the protoplasm, which can be translated into the movement of "flagellae", or whip-like appendages, or, a life-form may develop a superior sensitivity when discriminating between beneficial and harmful stimuli.

In short, all capabilities that are later expressed as "organ functions" by the large multi-cellular organisms, are fore-shadowed by the development of intra-cellular functions, or "propensities", which may well antedate the emergence of the independenly metabolising, single cell. These functions, together with their potential or rudimentary forms, constitute some sort of a legacy from the primordial protoplasm.

Multi-cellular development starts, therefore, with a rich heritage of many different cellular potentials for specialised functions, and, we have to see the exploration of the possibilities of existence by cellular communities in this light. We may ask ourselves, why a possibility of existence was explored by a community of cells, in contrast to the search for viability by a specialised and formidably effective, single cell.

When we look at the analogy of vertebrate life, developing from non-vertebrate life, or, perhaps, even more dramatically and better known, the development of mammalian existence from a reptilian background, we see, that the beginnings of such a trend are, not only, inconspicuous, but, they are often hidden for a long time by vastly superior and dominating life-forms.

The direction towards a new development does not come from the supremely successful life-forms. On the contrary, these experiments with new ways of finding viability arise from those life-forms, which are under severe pressures from a variety of dangers and challengers. This is logical, because we see in every life-form, including the human being, that the dominant and successful entities are the most conservative elements. They derive no existential benefit from any change, and, they always try to maintain a, for them, beneficial status-quo.

Evolutionary developments never arise from species' that have found a successful niche, because they have little inclination to experiment with new modes of existence. Successful species' become rigid in their way of life, and, they have often become highly specialised. They reign supreme, at least for a while, but, slowly, the pressures upon them start to increase, too.

These pressures arise from subtle changes in their environment. The climatic and geological circumstances may be changing, or, their food-supply may begin to decline, or, it may be threatened by a very successful competitor. Often, the members of a dominant species have become large and are vulnerable because of their huge energy requirements. Whatever the causes for these increased pressures, the dominant and highly specialised life-forms may, rather suddenly, become extinct, in particular, when such a specialised species has become large in size.

Even, if it does not become extinct, a previously successful life-form may be greatly reduced in the size of its population or gene-pool, easing competitive pressures, but, making the gene-pool precariously small, reducing, even further, the possibilities for adaptative changes in the genetic code.

A species that "breaks through" into a new ecological niche, stems, almost always, from a lineage that has been "waiting in the wings" so to speak. It is less specialised, but flexible, agile, and not very large. It has been "forgotten" or overlooked in the monumental struggle between the larger and more powerful species', until it suddenly finds a greatly enhanced possibility to exist. This increase in viability may be due to a greater range of recognisable stimuli and potentially favourable circumstances. Or, increased viability may have been found in a larger range of motoric activities, a greater speed or agility, a greater tolerance of temperature fluctuations, a better protection of the younger generations, or a more refined ability to finely tune behavioural responses, whenever such fine-tuning became possible with the development of behavioural flexibility.

Nevertheless, we should emphasise, once more, that each and every development towards a greater degree of viability is associated with a disadvantage, or, at least, a potential disadvantage. As long as the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, viability has been increased, at least, for a particular period of existence, and, for a specific set of prevailing circumstances. Even the adaptation of behavioural flexibility is a "specialisation" with its own price to pay. Disadvantages of the development of behavioural fine-tuning, or "intelligence", are, e.g., the reduced ability of the genetic code to lay-down precise and vitally important patterns of behaviour, such as, e.g., child-care in the species of mankind.

The human species has a marked tendency to develop faulty attitudes and defective behaviour-patterns, especially, when conditions are "easy" and affluence has allowed the deterioration of strict behavioural guidelines. These cultural guidelines have to be encoded culturally. We see, here, one of the most serious liabilities associated with the faculty of "behavioural flexibility".

This example is one particular aspect of a broader principle. The genetic encoding becomes less precise in its behavioural instructions, (a necessity in the search for the possibilities of behavioural fine-tuning for behaviourally flexible species'), and, as a result, the cultural code, (which is a culturally transmitted complex of learned behaviour, experiences, mores, customs and beliefs), becomes increasingly important as a decisive factor of viability. We may have witnessed, already, that the ultimate criteria for human viability have shifted from a genetically encoded instruction to a culturally transmitted pattern of behaviour.

We all know, how vulnerable, labile and corruptible the cultural code really is. It may well be, that the human species has already lost its long-term viability because of this fatal transfer of the responsibility for the criteria of viability from a genetic to a cultural code. It may well be, that one major disaster, such as man-made warfare with weapons of mass-destruction, may be sufficient to destroy the cultural code to such an extent, that man will be unable to cope, technologically or psychologically, with the physical problems of a severely polluted terrestial environment.

It does not have to happen, of course, because collective insights into the problems of our existence and the weaknesses inherent in the physiological and psychological organisation of the human being, may keep pace with the increasingly sophisticated problems we face, but the fact, that a collective demise has become a distinct possibility, makes it likely, that the eventual outcome of the human species will be another case of sudden extinction.

If such happens, we only join a very large number of species' that have become extinct already, but, we are, so far as we know, the first species to have foreseen the occurrence, or, at least, the likelyhood of its own demise. Would this be a tragedy? For us, yes, because we treasure human awareness as the ultimate foundation for all our experiences, thoughts and sensations, but, whether or not such an event would be of any significance on a cosmic scale, is doubtful.

However, let us not indulge in such gloomy perspectives, because, at this time, we do not want to go into the measures that are necessary to avoid such an event. We have done so in the past, and, we will, undoubtedly, come back upon these topics in the future. Will discuss, on many occasions, still to come, the measures we have to take in order to secure our own long-term survival.

We want to return, here, to a reflective over-view of the development of multi-cellular existence, where nature tested, tentatively, and, probably, hesitantly, the difficult road towards cellular socialisation. In the early stages, such a development must have looked hopelessly fragile, in particular, when we consider the sponge as a still living example of one of the earlier attempts to survive through the formation of a cellular community.

The remarkable structure of the sponge shows, how certain cells did find, or develop, the ability to form a small tubular structure, capable of creating a flow of water through the cellular community. We have seen, how an increase in the flow of water past a cell solves many problems associated with the procurement of food and the elimination of waste-products. In the sponge, neighbouring cells position themselves around such a cell with the capability to move water in order to profit, to some extent, from this flow of water, until we see a wall of cells, where, at regular intervals, the tubular cells form "pores" through which water is being propelled to the outside, while there is a large opening at the top, where water flows into a community of sponge cells.

There is no evidence for any further specialisation in function, such as a nerve or muscle cells, and, the cells that form a sponge still retain the ability to re-organise themselves into another sponge, after they have been physically separated from each other.

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Chapter 5

Content

Still existing species' give us only a rough outline of the pathways of natural evolution.
A search for the general principles of evolutionary change.
The embryological development of a multi-cellular organism.
Does embryological development reflect an evolutionary past?
More likely, it reflects the history of a specific genetic code, and the way it was "put together".
Differences between the history of natural evolution and the development of a specific genetic code.
Differences of the "last digit".
The morphology of early embryogenesis.
The "node of Hansen".
The three-layered disc; the neural tube and the formation of "mesenchymal segments".
The overall outlines of the "head-regions" of the neural tube.
A complex morphology, and a largely unknown sequence of chemical inductor substances.
The change from a state of omni- or pluri-potentiality to a state of specialisation.
The node of Hansen; the "primary organiser" of the embryo.
A more detailed look at the embryology of the central nervous system.
Are cells "dragged" along or across by organising clusters of cells or chemical potentials?
Injury to the nerve-axon.
Convincing evidence for nerve-elongations by relative movements of cells and organs during growth and maturation of the body.
The orientation in space, and, later, in time.
The link with human reality perceptions.
Why we have to teach these principles of understanding to future generations.
The need for hard philosophical work in order to develop a flowing and persuasive imagery of man.

Undoubtedly, even the sponge has a long evolutionary history, because it has found a possibility to survive, until the present time, in spite of the fact, that natural evolution has produced a fantastic variety of much more complicated and efficient forms of multi-cellular existence. From the species' that are still around, we can trace a rough outline, how evolution may have taken place, but, since no fossil records are available for most extinct species', we will always have to speculate about the finer details of evolutionary pathways.

Here, we hope to be able to extract a few general principles that may help us to organise our thoughts. Eventually we should be able to translate a majority of the processes that lie behind the development of a complex multi-cellular individual, into concepts that let us visualise events at the level of chemical reactions, but, even so, these complex chemical sequences wll probably prove to be so rich in detail, that we will need overall principles or large-scale mechanisms of cause and effect to grasp these phenomena with the faculty of our conscious awarenesses.

The embryological development of a multi-cellular individual, which starts as a single, fertilised egg-cell, does not, of course, necessarily reflect, in detail, the evolution of this particular species, but, the idea, that embryological development may, to some extent, reflect the evolutionary past of a species, can be very helpful for our efforts to understand, what has been taking place. The major difference between evolutionary history and embryological development, is, of course, the fact, that, in the latter, we are dealing with a quick and chemically or genetically guided sequence of cellular divisions, migrations and differentiations, while the evolutionary history of a species reflects a branched, multi-facetted and essentially blind search for possibilities of existence, which has led to numerous side branches and blind alleys.

During the evolutionary search for existence possibilities in an environment where circumstances and relationships are always changing, the genetic code is being modified to reflect a particular search for viability. This same genetic code has to guide the development of every individual that is coming into being as a result of the mechanisms of reproduction. These guided processes have to transform a single egg-cell into a highly complex member of a multi-cellular species. It is not surprising, therefore, that many different species' start their embryological development along similar lines, and, they only diverge into their particular species-specific differentiations during the later phases of their embryological development.

It appears, therefore, as if the embryological development of a specific multi-cellular individual, repeats, at least, to some extent, the evolutionary history of the species, but, it would, perhaps, be more accurate to say, that the embryological development of a member reflects the sequence and the manner in which the genetic code of this species was modified during its evolutionary history.

We should remind ourselves, that, species-specificity does not mean, that differing species' have entirely different genetic codes. They may only differ in the final instructions, (the "last digit", so to speak, of a large number of genetic instructions), and, the early phases of embryological development of numerous species', or, even, entire families of organisms, may share the same basic "construction plan". Many living organisms use, therefore, the same "foundations" for their actualisation from a fertilised egg-cell, but, the final "super-structure", built upon such a foundation, may vary almost endlessly.

We will refrain, here, from tracing these steps in any detail, since they can be found in a relevant textbook or a comprehensive encyclopedia, but, let us summarise, briefly, the overall outlines of the embryogenesis of a member of the vertebrate family. The fertilised egg-cell rapidly divides into a cluster of cells and forms a sphere. This is followed by fluid accumulation inside the sphere of cells and leads to a flattenened disc of cells, somewhere near the equatorial plane of this fluid filled sphere.

This flattened disc has already an upper and a lower layer of "ectoderm" and "endoderm", but, in nearly all species', a third layer develops quickly by a process of cellular migration and multiplication, forming a third layer in between the upper and lower layers; the "mesoderm".

A highly active cluster of cells appears near the edge of this disc, which becomes, later, the caudal or "tail" end. This cluster travels forward, through the midline of the disc. As it moves forward, a greatly increased proliferation of cells occurs right behind it. This proliferation "sinks", eventually, as a "neural tube" under the upper layer of cells.

This cluster of inductor-cells, or, "node of Hansen", seems to induce, therefore, the formation of the central and peripheral nervous systems, and, it is also related to the formation of the "notochord"; an important embryological structure from which the vertebral column develops. The vertebral column is a structure that contains a number of bony and segmented vertebrae, surrounding the notochord, as well as the neural tube. At the same time, numerous structures develop from this third or "middle layer", which was initiated by the node of Hansen and the formation of the neural tube.

Muscles, tendons, bones, connective tissues and other specialised cellular structures come into being. The lower layer becomes surrounded by the proliferation of this mesodermal or "mesenchymal" layer, and, as a result, it, too,"sinks" into the developing embryo. It develops, then, into the digestive tract. Many internal organs develop as out-pouchings of this digestive tract, or "endo-dermal" or lower layer, which has, now, become an enclosed tube, just like the neural tube, which is an enclosed layer of ectoderm that has sunk below the surface of the developing embryo. The internal organs arising from the endoderm or digestive tract form in conjunction with contributions from the mesenchymal or middle layer, as well as from the "ectodermal" layer, (the upper layer), since all the nerve cells and specialised sensory cells that are scattered through many organs, including the skin, find their origin in this upper or ectodermal layer.

The rostral part, or "head" end, of the neural tube becomes enlarged as the brain, and the special sense-organs develop in this region. Limbs develop, and, by the time a mammalian vertebrate brings her offspring into the world, we see a remarkably complete and finely differentiated body, capable of growing into a healthy and reproducing adult, if circumstances permit.

Obviously, even the morphological details of embryological development are so complex, that it requires a long and specialised study to grasp, fully, what is happening in purely morphological terms. To understand what is happening, chemically, and, how such a differentiation and structuring comes-about, is largely beyond our grasp; at least, during my time, only a few details of these chemical events have been unraveled. However, we have become aware of a number of general principles, which we can not translate, as yet into a "chemical language", and, perhaps, we will never be able to translate all these happenings into chemical events.

What we see is the following; cells change, gradually, from a state of omni- or pluri-potentiality, (a condition, where they can still go into all or many directions of development), into a state of being specialised in form and function. The location of a cell within the developing embryo determines, to a large extent, the type of cellular specialisations such a cell is going to carry-out. This suggests, that a precisely timed sequence of inductive substances is being released during the various stages of cellular specialisation. First, chemical inductor substances are released, bringing about the major differentiations of the three primary layers; the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, and, later, a more simultaneous sub-specialisation of many areas takes place under the influence of a number of different chemical inductors, released, more or less simultaneously, in various parts of the embryo. The finer details of organ-formation are, therefore, being carried-out by a large number of cellular communities, which have now gone their separate, developmental ways.

At all times, cells must respond to the inductive stimuli in an appropriate manner. If something interferes with their normal responses, (e.g., as the result of toxic or infectious influences that have been carried to the embryo by the maternal blood-stream), or, if certain inductive substances are incompletely or defectively manufactured, many major and minor defects will take place in the embryological construction of the individual. The field of abnormal anatomy is abundantly aware of a great variety of birth defects that may occur, and, many of them are so gross and lethal, that the embryo dies during the early stages of its development. Once the embryo has died, it is rejected by the maternal tissues as an abortion or miscarriage.

The primary "motor" for initiating this complex series of inductive processes is, in all probability, represented by this remarkable cluster of cells, which embryologists have called the node or streak of Hansen. It seems, that this cluster determines, not only, what is up and what is down, (by designating one layer as ectoderm and the other as endoderm), but, it is also responsible for the formation of the central nervous system, the brain, the spinal cord, the vertebral column, as well as the segmental appearance of many "myotomes" which constitute, by and large, the third or mesenchymal layer. These are clusters of cells that are repeated as segments along the vertebral colum, and, these cellular clusters form, eventually, with many modifications, the musculo-skeletal outlines of the new individual.

Let us speculate, for a moment, about probable mechanisms of development within the central nervous system, because, somehow, during these inductive processes, an amorphous mass of proliferating cells is, not only, induced to specialise into nerve-cells, but, these mechanisms lead also to the organisation of numerous cellular clusters, as well as the connecting communication links, within the spinal cord and brain. This sub-specialisation of the central nervous system includes the formation of cortical cell-layers in the cerebral hemi-spheres, together with many deep-seated cell-clusters that are scattered throughout the central nervous system, as well as all the intricate connections between the nerve-cells themselves and with peripherally situated receptors or effector cells. All these connections and transformations have to be accomplished, somehow, during this phase of embryological differentiation.

Again, let us emphasise, that we still have a rather vague imagery of the details of morphological developments that are taking place within the nervous system, and, we have even fewer ideas about the inductive processes that lie behind these morphological differentiations, which we can observe, at least, to some extent. Let us look, therefore, only, at the major outlines of neural development.

The movement of the node of Hansen indicates, clearly, a process that traverses an axis, from tail to head, and, we may postulate that this traveling cluster of cells produces, not only, a stream of "infolding" or sinking cells, which form, amongst other structures, the neural tube, but, the movement of the node of Hansen may also carry along, in a rostral direction, some of the cells that have been induced behind it, and will, eventually, become nerve-cells. These cells may be carried along for vayring distances by this traveling node of Hansen. Perhaps, some cells will be carried forward for a short distance only; others may be carried all the way to the brain.

We postulate, that this concept of "variable migration" allows the separation of cells that arose, originally, closely together, and were, perhaps, already connected to each other. It seems logical to consider the connections between the cells that have become separated, as "protoplasmic elongations", resulting from the fact, that cells were "dragged" rostrally by Hansen`s node. This seems to be a more plausible mechanism than to visualise the ability of a cell to find a distant target-cell for its out-growing axon. To me, the imagery of passive elongation seems to be a more attractive explanation for the existence of long and short connections between the nerve-cells within the central nervous system, compared to the imagery of "active searching", because these connections become, often, enormously long, especialy, if one compares the size of the nerve-cell with the length which an axon of a nerve-cell can reach in an adult organism.

If we postulate, that nerve extensions grow-out, later, "seeking" their way through a myriad of cells, we run into the problem of explaining how they sought, and found, their way, in particular, since we see in the central nervous system no evidence for any significant guidance-structures for such nerve out-growths. Whenever the nervous system with its many connections has been damaged, later in life, as the result of an accident or disease process, no significant form of regeneration seems possible within the brain or the spinal cord.

When a nerve-cell extention, its axon, has been severed, the protoplasm begins to flow-out from the end that is still connected with the nerve-cell. However, in the central nervous system, the severed nerve-cell can not regain a connection with another nerve-cell, because the "guiding channels" disappear quickly because of the degeneration of the end that has been severed or disconnected from the cell. Within the central nervous system, the process of regeneration is not possible, at least, not to any significant extent, but, in the peripheral nervous system such a process of "regeneration" is possible, provided that the "guiding channels", formed by surrounding connective tissues, remain intact and sufficiently open to let the protoplasm of the nerve-cell flow towards the end, following the same channel it occupied, before it was severed. (In the central nervous system, axons are not surrounded by such "guiding structures" of connective tissue, but only by a fragile sheath of insulation or myelin, which degenerates and disappears, together with the protoplasmic contents of the severed part of the nerve-cell.). The part of the nerve-cell that is severed from the parent cell degenerates, and it has to be replaced by a new growth and outflow of protoplasm from the nerve-cell, before a measure of regeneration will be able to take place in a peripheral nerve.

If we postulate that cells are moved rostrally, from tail to head, within the central nervous system, as a result of the movement of the node of Hansen, we can form a mental imagery that lets us see these connecting links as elongated, and, later, as insulated or myelinated segments of a nerve-cell. These elongated segments may bring impulses towards the cells of the central nervous system, or they may be carrying-down instructions from the nerve-cells, depending upon the further development of the cell and its role within the central nervous system.

However, in addition to this movement from tail to head, we will also have to postulate a movement across, from side to side, otherwise, we can not explain the formation of crossed neural "tracts", which are bundles of nerve-cell connections. If we visualise a movement of nerve-cells crossing the midline, (presumably, under the influence of an inductor substance released by the node of Hansen), in addition to a graduated movement from tail to head, we can, indeed, visualise a network of connections across the midline, as well as a bi-directional communication between head and tail.

For the peripheral nervous system, we have some evidence that nerve connections are, indeed, made early between the muscles, the skin and other organs, on the one hand, and the central nervous system, on the other. These connections "grow", then, with the relative movements of the skin or muscle attachements during the development and enlargement of the embryo. These connections are, therefore, "stretched" by the relative movements of the parts they have been connected to.

Many investigators believe, that nerve-cell connections occur, initially, by an active "search" for their targets, (which is a chemical or "chemo-taxic potential" or stimulus), but, undoubtedly, they can elongate passively, to a remarkable extent, during the further growth and development of an individual, both, in utero, and, later, after birth, especially, during infancy and childhood.

The migration of the node of Hansen has also "oriented" the embryo. It determines up and down, head and tail regions, and, it creates a bilateral symmetry, which is, eventually "lateralised" by the development of dominance of one cerebral hemisphere over its partner, the non-dominant hemisphere. This process of differentiation into the three dimensional planes of space is necessary in order to broaden the perception and orientation of an organism in relation to its environment. Later, when the brain developed the ability to record past experiences and to abstract the general relevance of these experiences, the individual organism learned to explore and orient itself in the fourth dimension of existence; time.

We have seen, how the human being lives, at all times, in a composite picture of reality, which spans a period of time and includes the experiences of the past, the evaluations and interpretations of the present, as well as the expectations of what is going to happen in the near future. If we analyse human behaviour closely, we see, that these three aspects are intricately inter-woven, and, we know, that they play a major role in the way we perceive our realities.

These capabilities were made possible in that dim and distant evolutionary past, when a few cellular communities explored, tentatively, countless possibilities for multi-cellular organisation. This evolutionary past is, to some extent, reflected in the sequential organisation and unfolding of the genetic instructions that bring-about the actualisation of each and every living organism of a multi-cellular species. Only recently, have we begun to understand some of the basic principles of these processes, and, we are still groping for ideas to make it understandable, how we originate as an individual, and, how we, collectively, came to be the species of mankind.

The perceptive reader, who has taken the trouble to familiarise him- or herself, to some extent, with the concepts that have arisen from the biological sciences, will recognise the relevance of these images, as well as the exciting vistas that are being revealed by these scientific observations. Hopefully, in the near future, each human adolescent will be taught, in broad outlines, the concepts and ideas of embryological development, as well as the general organisational principles of living organisms. We all will benefit greatly from a firm grasp over these matters, because these insights will be instrumental in preserving long-term viability, and, these ideas do not have to hide behind authoritarian attitudes or traditional beliefs.

Everyone will be invited to scrutinise and study the evidence upon which these ideas have been based, and, I am convinced, that we can agree, to a large extent, about the accuracy and relevance of the major outlines of these concepts. We see, already, how widely these ideas have been accepted amongst the serious students of science in many different cultures. Many people have already taken the time, and made the effort, to familiarise themselves with the facts and concepts of the biological sciences, but, we still have to enlarge the relevance of this imagery to the many problems and concerns of our daily existence.

In order to make these ideas more accessible to a great majority of people all over the world, we need to clarify many of the relationships that exist within our own personality, with its instinctive drives and existential concerns, and, we will have to engage in serious and hard philosophical work, in order to be able to trace an utterly flowing and persuasive imagery of mankind, which is harmoniously integrated with the biological sciences, and yet, satisfies us, emotionally and intellectually, as an image that does justice to the complexity and contradictoriness of being human.

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Chapter 6

Content

A rturn to embryogenesis.
A leadership function for cellular as well as social differentiations or specialisations; striking parallels.
The "trek" of the node of Hansen.
A variety of simultaneous regional developments.
Organising systems that operate in the fully differentiated body; hormonal regulators and the more specific "topical" instructions by nerve-cell connections.
Regulatory functions with the help of antagonistic mechanisms.
The bulk of the central nervous system regulates the relationships of the organism with its environment.
The hierarchical strata of the central nervous system.
A gradient of organisational powers.
The contemporary relevance of detailed knowledge about these matters.
Academic and clinical applications.
The link with future philosophical concerns.
Inducing competitive cells to tolerate each other at close quarters.
The problem, that nearly all intermediary evolutionary life-forms have vanished and are not available for study or observation.
The sponge re-visited.
A brief review of conceptual problems and speculative images.
Replacing combat with the mechanisms of dominance and submissiveness.
The importance of the trend towards social integration.
The insect colony, seen as a supra-individual behavioural unit.
A search for conclusions that may be helpful in the organisation of our own social environments.
The fallacy of trying to solve our problems only regionally or temporarily; the need for a broad grasp over human existence.

Let us come back, for a moment, to the imagery of embryological development. In the very early stages of embryogenesis, a large number of apparently identical cells arrange themselves into a sphere, and, after fluid has accumulated into this sphere, a disc-like shield of cells develops more or less in the center. This disc becomes the actual embryo, while the outer parts of the sphere develop into the placenta, which serves as a link between the embryo and the nourishing blood-stream of the maternal womb.

Then, at a certain spot, a small cluster of cells breaks into a furious rate of metabolic activity. It proliferates and begins manufacturing inductor substances. It also begins a process of migration. We assume that this cluster of "streak-cells" from the node of Hansen acts as a "pacemaker" for the development of the embryo, since the disc-cells have not differentiated as yet, and, they must have the same potential everywhere, including the potential of becoming the pace-setter or "engine" for embryological differentiation.

Yet, a small group, or, perhaps, even, a single cell becomes prominent; a leader, and initiates this entire process of inductive differentiations. This is somewhat similar to the differentiation of a social grouping, where one, or, at the most, a few members take the initiative, organise the tasks that have to be carried-out in order to secure survival, and become, thereby, the leaders of their community.

The assumption of leadership, the issuing of organising influences or stimuli, as well as the response of the members to a variety of organising instructions, all these factors lead to a process of differentiation for the members of a community. These principles apply to the social organisation of human beings, as well as to the cells of an embryo, but, the cells of an embryo become anatomically specialised, while the members of a human community become only differentiated in what they know and can do, or, in the way they behave.

A social grouping of human beings does not form a pattern of fixed spatial relationships between its members, which is so characteristic of the multi-cellular community, nor, do we see the remarkable anatomical and physiological differentations that take place within a cellular community. Nevertheless, in outline, or, rather, in principle, the similarities between these processes are striking, and, a constant cross-reference between our observations in the social sphere and the cellular mode of existence, may help to broaden our understanding of the phenomena taking place at both levels.

We see, how a leadership has to find members that are willing and waiting to respond to its instructions, but, we see, also, that these instructions must be beneficial to the unit as a whole, otherwise, internal conflicts develop and viability will be lost.

The degree of precision, the complexity of the instructions, as well as the size of the community that is going to become a socially organised entity of existence are all far more prominent in the multi-cellular community than the organisation of human beings into a socially integrated structure, and, we must not make the mistake to consider these different levels of social integration to represent identical processes. We only want to emphasise, here, the similarities, without losing sight of the differences.

The initial group of dominant cells of the node of Hansen functions as an "overall initiator" of the process of embryological differentiation. Probably, these cells induce, first, the differentiation into the three major layers we have described, as well as the anlage of the central and peripheral nervous systems. After this group of cells has made its "trek" from tail to head, we postulate, that, in numerous areas, smaller sub-divisions of the embryo develop their own local "leadership structures", or secondary centers of organisation, which carry-out a further differentiation of the cells in this particular area. It may even be possible, that a third and fourth generation of organisers comes to the fore in the course of embryogenesis.

We can visualise, in general outlines, some of the mechanisms that lie behind cellular differentiation and organ-formation, but, we should not forget, that, throughout the life-span of a multi-cellular organism, organising forces remain active. Some of these organising forces are mediated through a hormonal or "humoral" system, and, others are specialised defense mechanisms in order to cope with injuries or a microbial invasion. Again others are concerned with circulatory adjustments, or the relationships between the various organs, necessary to integrate them into a functional unit.

As a general principle, we may say, that, organising systems are mediated through "messengers" that spread through the circulatory system. A different type of messenger, the nerve-impulse or stimulus, plays a role in correlating the activities of the organism with its external environment, but, in essence, the objectives of all these organising mechanisms are the same; to make the unit as a whole behave efficiently and maintain its viability.

Like all effective organisers, the messengers or stimuli can be either positive or negative, stimulating or inhibiting, and, we see such a clear-cut antagonistic action, also, between the sympathetic and para-sympathetic systems of the central and peripheral nervous systems, which form, together, a finely tuned network of internal organisation and adjustment.

The remainder, and, by far, the largest and most complex parts of the neural system are concerned with the orientation and inter-action of the multi-cellular individual with its external environment. Interestingly, we see in the organisation of the central nervous system, (which is dominated by the centrally located parts of the brain and the spinal cord), many traces of an evolutionary past.

Just as the genetic instructions reveal, through the various stages of organisation within a developing embryo on its way to completion, some of the evidence of a developmental or evolutionary past, so does the nervous system, in particular, the central nervous system, reveal evidence for a "progressive build-up" of its structures. This progressive build-up reflects, then, at least, to some extent, the evolutionary history of the central nervous system.

In the central nervous system we see, e.g., strong evidence for a "hierarchical layering" of functions, where "older" models of neurological organisation, (which have been formed as genetic instructions during the earlier phases of evolutionary development), become subjugated to, or dominated by, "newer" or more recent evolutionary modifications. This hierarchical make-up of the organisation of the central nervous system has become an important key for the analysis and understanding of the functions of the central nervous system.

It is very likely, therefore, that the overall "initiating sweep" of this collection of cells, forming the node of Hansen, does not bring-about, all at once, the detailed cellular differentiations and neural connections of the central nervous system. Most likely, we are dealing with a host of successive, regional organisers, operating within the central nervous system as it is developing. We have mentioned, how we postulate, in addition to the caudal-rostral sweep or tail-head migration of Hansen's cells, a gradient of organisational powers between left and right to have taken place in order to explain the existence of crossed nerve-cell connections.

Yet, in addition to the organising gradients of inductor substances, it is likely, that the many details of the spinal cord and the brain, also imply the existence of a variety of further, regional organisers, responsible for the proliferation and migration of certain nerve-cells, the direction of nerve out-growths to specific targets, and, later, the invasion of the central nervous system by blood-vessels and supportive tissues, and, perhaps, also the myelination or "insulation" of most of the long-distance connections between nerve-cells.

It is futile at this stage of our knowledge to speculate more in detail about the probable mechanisms of development for the central nervous system. Undoubtedly, we will be able to gain more precise insights into these happenings, after a period of concentrated and well-guided research. At the present time, a detailed grasp over these matters remains only appealing to a small elite of professional students, and, at the same time, the relevance of such a knowledge and insight is limited to securing an academic position, or, to an understanding of specific disease processes taking place within the central nervous system.

Since nerve-cells and their central connections do not re-grow after having been damaged or severed by injury or disease, the science of neurological disorders is, still, heavily oriented towards clinical diagnosis and a detailed understanding of the disease processes involved, and, to some extent, our attention is being focussed, now, upon the possibilities of preventing damage to the central nervous system. We are becoming more familiar with the harmful effects of many toxic substances and micro-organisms, as well as the disastrous effects of mechanical stresses and injuries to the brain and spinal cord.

However, the philosophical relevance of the functions of life and the embryological development of the human organism, is still, by and large, unclear. Yet, the possibilities for understanding, opened-up by a philosophical exploration of relevant correlations between these fields and the common areas of human experience, are so exciting, at least, to me, that we will keep pursuing these images, in spite of the fact, that the relevance of these efforts may not be apparent for a long time to come.

One of the most intriguing aspects of multi-cellular existence is, undoubtedly, this "initial mechanism", when cells are "coming together". The problems associated with even the most tentative attempts to find an increased viability by grouping together into a symbiotic harmony, must have been formidable. We can hardly begin to speculate on the numerous trials and errors which must have preceded, even, such a tentative multi-cellular organisation as the sponge.

We have to accept the likelyhood, that many more primitive or more tentative organisations found a temporary possibility of existence, and, we assume, that these life-forms have become extinct and have vanished without leaving a trace. As we have discussed, the organisation of the sponge is limited to a somewhat haphazard arrangement of cells around a tubular cell or "pore cell". Because a sponge can re-organise itself after cellular contact has been lost, there does not exist a crucial body-plan upon whose integrity the viability of its cellular members depend. Probably, the dominant regions are the pore-cells, around which the other cells arrange themselves in order to benefit from the water-current that is being generated by these pore-cells. The structure of a sponge merely increases the efficiency of a flow of water, as well as the efficiency of separating the "fresh" or food-bearing waters from water that has already been strained.

It is interesting to note, that, in the sponge, we see already a hint of the three-layered embryo, which seems to be such a fundamental starting point in the embryogenesis of all multi-cellular species'. The outside layer of sponge-cells becomes flattened, like a later ectoderm. The inside layer has the whiplike appendages and the ability to absorb food particles, like the endoderm of the future, while there exists an amorphous layer of mobile cells in between, with the capability to develop, if necessary, into any of the other, more "specialised" cells, such as pore-cells, epithelial cells or collar cells, flagellate and absorbing cells. This middle or "proto-mesenchymal" layer can also form deposits of calcium or other materials, as a fore-runner of a "skeleton".

While there seems to be good evidence to believe, that the sponge did not give rise to further evolutionary developments, and is, therefore, a "side branch", it is remarkable, that the overall organisation reflects, already, some of the patterns used in future multi-cellular organisations. Certainly, the sponge does not have anything resembling a nervous system, which is a form of cellular specialisation in the conduction of stimuli. This specialisation is indispensible for the level of behavioural integration required for cellular communities with an animal mode of existence.

Probably, we have to consider the sponge as one of the few survivors of an evolutionary stage of multi-cellular development, which preceded the specialisation of a nervous system. All the other and more highly organised cellular communities inherited from a common, but now extinct ancestor, the ability to induce some of the cells of the ectodermal layer to become specialised in the reception and conduction of stimuli. We remind ourselves, that this characteristic was already foreshadowed in the excitability of the cellular protoplasm of the single cell.

How do we visualise the transformation to have taken place from a state of competitive existence between identical cells, to an existence allowing close proximity and a suppression of hostile tendencies, such as phagocytosis, the secretion of injurious substances, or the siphoning-off of someone else's protoplasm? As we discussed before, we see in these capabilities of cellular specialisation, characteristics that developed, already, in the highly competitive world of uni-cellular life, and, the community of symbiotic cells has, probably, arisen from a less specialised, pluri- or omni-potential and vulnerable species of uni-cellular organisms, which was hunted down and devoured, quite easily, by the more aggressive and more specialised cells.

We are back, therefore, to the general principle, that a new evolutionary avenue develops, slowly, from a less specialised form of living existence. Such an evolutionary pathway of cooperation and integration is explored out of necessity, because of severe existential pressures endured by a species that is looking for a better way to survive. Slowly, the characteristics of competitive strife must have been transformed into a socialising trend of diversification and complementary functions, which was, eventually, rewarded with an enhanced possibility of existence.

The characteristics of dominance and subsmissiveness of the more complex, socially integrated life-forms, developed as a result of the need to tolerate each other at close quarters. Similarly, a differentiation into leadership functions, as well as the ability to follow instructions from a dominant cell or cell-group, led to possibilities of task-differentiations, together with morphological and functional specialisations.

The terminology, here, is somewhat vague and anthropocentric. This is unavoidable, because, in the first place, we have no idea, how these changes in behaviour came-about, and, we are unable, as yet, to translate these mechanisms into chemical events. Secondly, we want to emphasise the similarities between the mechanisms of the socialisation of cells, and the socialisation of multi-cellular individuals.

We have elaborated this similarity many times before, and, we have also outlined the many differences we can observe and describe. Yet, let us emphasise, once again, the remarkable phenomenon, that the living organisation as a whole always reverts back to a state of competitive existence, after it has reached a successful symbiotic integration of the participating members that make-up the living organisation.

Multi-cellular existence arises from a mutually compatible harmonisation or symbiosis of cells, based on the mechanisms of functional specialisation and task-differentiation, but a multi-cellular individual will, once again, show the "primitive" or primary behaviour-patterns of competitive strife. This competitive existence in the animal multi-cellular communities has to take the form of"predation". An animal has to be, by definition, a predator of other life-forms, and, in addition, it is subjected to the pressures of competitive strife which always come to the fore, whenever organisms with similar existential requirements compete for the basic necessities.

Later, some of these multi-cellular animal species' form, once again, a pattern of socially integrated behaviour, especially, when they are subjected to severe existential pressures by more competent and specialised species'. Such a trend towards social behaviour is, again, rewarded with increased viability, and, let us remind ourselves, that, existential pressures are the only significant drive behind every socialising trend.

However, the socialisation of cells and human beings shows also many differences. In the case of the secondary socialisation of human beings, we see, that social behaviour can not be encoded, anymore, with a genetic finality because of the characteristics of behavioural flexibility. In the much less flexible multi-individual community of an insect-colony, the conditions of existence resemble much more a supra-individual entity, in spite of the fact, that the individual members of such a multi-individual unit are not physically attached to each other, but have been endowed with a freedom of movement that is unparalleled in the systems of multi-cellular organisation.

In spite of the differences between the harmonisation of cellular existence in the multi-cellular unit and the socialisation of human beings, we like to explore in the remaining pages of this essay a variety of parallels. Let us see, whether or not we can draw some relevant conclusions from our observations about multi-cellular life. These conclusions may be helpful in constructing and organising the large social units of mankind.

We have made, here, a giant conceptual step towards a form of human existence that has, in essence, been integrated on a global scale, because we know, from experience and from our history, that human societies will always engage in violent acts of competitive strife, or wars, unless they learn to become inter-dependent and mutually reliant upon each other.

Competitive strife between societies can only be overcome, if each one of us, regardless, how insignificant we think we are, is able, by virtue of education and insight, to identify with the world as a whole.

If we keep giving-in to the temptation to solve our problems regionally or nationally, we will always have disparities and tensions, and we will always have to cope with an essential element of injustice because of an unavoidable factor of inequality. Ultimate harmony is only possible, if the human species fuses into a beautifully organised unit of existence, giving each individual a measure of security of existence, as well as an opportunity to unfold a few talents and fulfill some aspirations.

But, we also have to exact from each individual a contribution of understanding, cooperation and hard work, because everyone has to learn, that, each and every right or privilege has to be earned with hard work, scrupulous fairness and openness, as well as an unbreakable link between input and output.

The final evolution of human existence, if fate and circumstances permit, will, undoubtedly, be a supra-individual entity that has been organised on a global scale, but, if we want this idea to be plausible and to be taken seriously, now, before it has been accomplished, we will have to outline a series of suggestions and practical considerations, which will make such a mental imagery, not only, reasonable, but inevitable; without viable alternatives.

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Chapter 7

Content

We begin life as a fertilised egg-cell.
The continuous chain of living existence.
Unfamiliarity with the early stages of human existence.
The infant as a bundle of reflexes.
The faculty of conscious awareness is absent at the time of birth.
The timing of birth is determined by viability considerations.
An extremely long maturation period for the human being.
The incomplete development of the central nervous system at the time of birth.
The potential for an increasing level of awareness throughout our entire life-span.
The question of "being human".
The three major stages of human development.
A strong instinct to provide parental care.
The probability, that confused cultural guidelines severely affect the quality of parental care.
Neglect and remorse.
The need for truly coherent concepts and generally acceptable reality perceptions.
Ambivalent attitudes.
The question of the deliberately induced abortion.
A cold analysis of fuzzy and ambivalent attitudes.
A justified protest against the abuse of sexuality and sexual differences.
A plea to keep natural, biologically shaped differences in mind and in perspective.
A sermon to us, males.

Whether we realise it or not, and, regardless, where we have been born into the world, each and everyone of us began our life as a fertilised egg-cell. We were nourished by the maternal womb, and, we went through a pattern of embryological developments, as we have outlined above. We were alive all this time. The fertilised egg-cell is alive. The sperm and the unfertilised egg are alive and well, before their fusion into a fertilised egg-cell. All the cells of our body that multiply, migrate and specialise are alive and well.

There is, therefore, no particular point in the development of a human being, where we "become alive", and, there is only a difference in the level of development, if an embryo is aborted after three days, three weeks or three months of gestation.

Because the very early stages of human development are unfamiliar to us, we do not feel, that the embryo or early fetus aborted after a few weeks of gestation, is a human being, but, we are able to recognise a full-term, healthy newborn infant as human, in spite of the fact, that such an infant is totally helpless, has incoordinated movements, lacks the ability to recognise or make purposeful movements, and, shows no evidence, as yet, of any conscious awareness.

We have described, before, why the newborn infant represents a helpless bundle of physiological reflexes, and, why the timing of birth is more related to the need to get the infant out of the womb, before it is too large, than any consideration of being "ready to face the world".

We have discussed the reasons, why behavioural flexibility requires a period of learning and maturation. The human species is the most advanced example of behavioural flexibility, and, it is not surprising, therefore, that human beings require a very long period of learning and maturation. The factor of "learned input" has become so important in the human species, that it determines its collective and individual viability. For this reason, even, the newly born baby is recognised with some difficulties as a human being; not because it is difficult to recognise it physically as an infant that has all the potentials of developing into a mature human being, (provided, it receives adequate care and stimulation for a period of about fifteen years, or more), but, because its reactions are such a jumble of primitive reflexes, lacking, totally, any evidence for the functions and behavioural characteristics associated with conscious and reflective existence.

An infant cries, when it is hungry or uncomfortable, and, it sleeps, when satiated, dry and warm. None of the mental functions are present as yet, and, it is difficult to mark, with any degree of precision, the time when these developments begin or have been completed. We are probably justified to say, that the level of awareness may increase throughout life, but, in most cases, the awarenesses and personality developments reach a plateau in adult life, after which a slow deterioration takes place during the period of senescence.

When is a human embryo or fetus human? It is always human, and it has always been alive. The moment of conception marks the beginning of an unfolding of potentials that were already present in the sex-cells themselves, but, the fusion of sex-cells in a suitable environment is necessary to set this pattern of unfolding into motion. The moment of birth is, in essence, only, a change of existence; from an intra-uterine to an extra-uterine way of life, but, the development of a human being is continued for at least another fifteen years or so, after birth.

There are three distinct phases in the development of the human being, but, it is advantageous to realise, that the criteria for distinguishing between these periods are incomplete. In the final analysis, we are only seeing three different aspects of the continuing events of human development. The first phase is the development of a single, fertilised egg-cell to the completion of the organ-formation in the fetus. This period lasts approximately three months. The second phase is characterised by a general enlargement of the fetus into a full-term baby. During this period, further specialisation and final details of construction are coming into existence. Proportions of the various parts of the body, as well as positions of organs and cellular communities, change, as a result of markedly varying growth rates of the tissues involved.

At the time of birth, most organ-systems have been completed, except for the central nervous system. In addition, many hormonal systems have not been fully developed as yet, in particular, those that come into play at the time of sexual maturity. In the third phase, from birth to maturity, we see, that the body completes slow but major changes. The infant grows from an average of six or seven pounds, to become an adult weighing between one and two hundred pounds.

Many behavioural potentials are actualised during the period of maturation. The individual acquires a remarkable range of motoric skills, including the utterance of a fluid stream of verbal symbols, as well as a range of conceptual abilities allowing the individual to communicate and integrate with the social environment he or she has been born into.

It is clear from the degree of helplessness nature allows a human infant to be born with, that natural selection relies, not only, upon an attitude of parental care, but, it has also sharpened into the patterns of parental behaviour, a well-developed instinct of intelligent care and loyal protection for its offspring. This high level of care and protection is only possible within a social context, however, even, if the size of the social unit may be limited to a few individuals.

We are fairly certain, therefore, that the final stages of evolutionary development took place within a social setting, and provided man with his current genetic package or biological heritage. As part of man's genetic instructions, we have a strong tendency to align ourselves with a small, socially organised group, and, to play a role within this group according to the circumstances of the moment and the range of our capabilities. At the same time, however, the human being, as well as his social environment, may interfere, dramatically, with the instinctive behaviour-patterns of parental care and social integration, because man has also a strong, inborn tendency to form a structure of beliefs and adopt communally determined behaviour-patterns and attitudes. This structure of beliefs and attitudes is used to accomplish a remarkable level of behavioural fine-tuning, where behaviour-patterns are adjusted to the circumstances and conditions believed or judged to be present. However, if these structures of belief and cultural guidelines become chaotic, perverse or confused, these defective structures may disrupt the genetically endowed instinctive patterns of parental care and concern.

In many affluent societies, the parental instincts have become confused. The instinct of loyal and consistent parental protection and care is being neglected in the pursuit of a large variety of egocentric pleasures, and, sometimes, children are, even, grossly abused. As a result, parental attitudes are, often, laced by feelings of guilt and remorse, interfering with the need for a firm and steady guidance of their offspring.

The human species can abandon the instinctive patterns of parental care to a dangerous or, even, catastrophic extent, and, we have seen, on previous occasions, why we can relate the loosening of such instinctive behaviour-patterns to the role of culturally induced attitudes and beliefs, because they play such a dominant role in guiding the behaviour of human beings, especially, if they live in a large and complex society.

This is the price we pay, when we adjust our behaviour, primarily, in accordance with culturally determined norms, rather than on the basis of essential criteria of viability. By adjusting to cultural norms, we may adjust our behaviour to out-dated or, perhaps, even, diseased guidance-patterns, because we are unable to find a viable possibility to exist outside the social structure we belong to.

While, technically, we do not have to perish, whenever our social environment collapses, in practice, many of us are so strongly tied to the social conditions we have become dependent upon, that, indeed, it seems, that we are going to perish whenever our social structure disappears. This is the reason, why our behavioural adjustments may go against what is ultimately good for us, because, if the social guidelines have become diseased, and, if we can not survive, or, if we think that we can not survive without this social environment with its diseased or abnormal guidelines, then, we will, inevitably, try to conform to a way of life, that is, in essence, detrimental to us and our offspring.

We may destroy ourselves and our offspring, if we fail to realise, that we have a responsibility to search, diligently and collectively, for a set of concepts and reality perceptions that is truly healthy and beneficial to all the members of our society, as well as all the social groupings of the human family.

For example, there are, not only, dangerous consequences, if parents negate their duties through egocentric pleasure-seeking, (and then negating their duties, once again, by remorseful pampering and over-indulgence, paralysing the ability to excercise leadership and guidance over their offspring), but, we see also a variety of attitudes come to the fore, that are dangerously ambivalent towards the offspring.

In a society where hatred, frustration and violence are seething under a veneer of forced togetherness, the sexual act is often experienced as a rape, an enslavement of the woman to the man, and, consequently, the offspring born from such an ambivalent relationship is looked-upon with equally ambivalent emotions.

We often hear a strident voice in the battle of the sexes, demanding the right to kill a human being. Of course, it is not perceived this way. It is seen as the right to be sovereign over the happenings with and within a woman's body, and, the sterile sanctity of a hospital operating room seems such an unlikely place to associate with an act of cold-blooded murder.

Why not let the child be born? Have a good look at it, and, if you decide, as a mother, that you do not want it, kill it with your own hands, or, if you can not do that, give it up for adoption. This would be a more honest and open solution to the problems of your emotional ambivalence and your hatred towards the male sex.

Certainly, you have a point, since the male is often brutally egocentric and denigrating in his dominant exploitation of female existence. Yet, let us see things in a sober perspective, and, let us acknowledge, that the sexual act, in nature, often requires a great deal of aggressive behaviour on the part of the male, who, usually, behaves as a rather will-less slave to the passions generate by the hormones circulating in his body.

Often, the female had to be captured and impregnated by some sort of forceful act, since the female was often not rewarded with a significant degree of sexual pleasure, and, she was saddled, in stead, with the long-lasting burdens of pregnancy and the up-bringing of her offspring.

Those, who advocate an equality in dignity and life-style for male and female alike, are absolutely right, and, they are right, when they point-out, that it is not necessary to exploit female attractiveness for commercial or pornographic purposes. They are quite right to insist upon equal rights and equal duties for men and women, and, upon equal opportunities and equal pay, but, it would be a tragic mistake to lose sight of the biological distinctions that do exist between male and female.

There must, inevitably, be differences in behaviour and attitudes that are linked to the different biological roles given to the male and female members of a species, and, we would not be making any contribution to our understanding, if we did not realise, or acknowledge, these differences.

What these differences are, and, how we have to accomodate for them, is another matter, which we will not explore here. Let us agree, however, that there are bound to be differences between male and female human existence, and, fortunately, a significant number of women are still willing to play a female role and find an instinctive satisfaction in looking after their families.

As males, we should respect and treasure these attitudes and attributes, and, we should, finally, learn to see, that it is denigrating and abusive to emphasise, constantly, the sexual aspects in a male-female encounter. We should, finally, learn, that sexuality is only one aspect of biological behaviour, which is strongly controled and dominated by primitive patterns and hormonal mechanisms. We should acknowledge, that we have a far greater responsibility to our female members of society than to make them pregnant!

We have to learn, that all members of a society, male and female alike, have a sense of justice and dignity, and, that the well-educated women of our time are eager to contribute a little more to society than just babies. It is up to us all, male and female alike, to reflect upon the nature of human existence. We have to reflect upon the nature, notions and beliefs, as well as the attitudes and prejudices of the society we happen to have been born into, and, we all have to contribute to the harmony and purpose of human existence, wherever and whenever we can.

Let us respect and encourage our women, and, let us point-out to them the great responsibilities, as well as the great opportunities associated with the running of a family household, and, let us, males, reflect, soberly, upon the dismal record of our attempts to manage the "household of society". We will then realise, that we have made many short-sighted mistakes, and, that we are ignorant about many aspects of the art of living.

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Chapter 8

Content

A return to the fertilised egg-cell.
A review of the continuous and unbreakable sequence of reproduction and development for every species of life.
The importance of having clear concepts about the origins and embryogenesis of our own existence.
The tendency to believe in a "divine spark", or an "immortal soul".
Endless discussions.
The conclusion, that the scientific imagery is audacious, irreverent, superficial and emotionally unsatisfactory.
A warning to those, who have wholeheartedly accepted the scientific imagery.
Let us refrain from authoritarian attitudes, dogmatism and the repression of dissent.
The purpose of a discussion or debate is to share mental images; not to win an intellectual battle.
A disturbing sense of relativity.
Why we have to make our reality perceptions more compatible with each other.
The concept of a "relativity of truth", seen as the most fundamental contribution of our biological and evolutionary insights.
A solid basis for understanding and constructing a clear and vivid mental picture of reality.
Problems with religious belief structures.
The scourge of fanatic behaviour and intolerance.
Good and Evil, seen in an existential light.
A potentially global relevance for relativistic reality perceptions.
A final review of the mechanisms of specialisation and multi-cellular existence.
The Constitutional code, needed for a stable, viable, large-scale social organisation of human beings.
A final analysis of individualised and socially integrated existence.

We should come back, once more, to the question, when a human being is fully human. Is a fertilised egg-cell human in the same way as a full-term, newly born infant, and, is an infant human in the same way as a child, an adolescent, and adult or an elderly person? If we try to establish an arbitrary point, where the degree of humanity changes in this continuous line of development from a single, fertilised cell to a fully mature and ageing individual, we run into problems. We see, that the fertilised egg-cell contains all the potentials for the formation of a newly born infant, and, a newly born infant has all the potentials for becoming a fully mature adult, and, eventually, all individualised human existence dies and returns to inorganic matter.

The changes between the various phases of human existence are so dramatic, however, that it is difficult to recognise in the microscopic egg-cell the potential of a full-grown human being. The embryo at the earlier stages of its development, is so unfamiliar to us, that we feel a sense of aversion, if we are confronted with it during an abortion, and, we even feel a sense of aversion, if we see the scientific pictures of embryos in varying stages of development. Yet, philosophically and scientifically, we have to conclude, that the developing embryo, regardless, how unfamiliar its appearance, carries the full potential of human existence, as well as the full potential for becoming a conscious and communicating human being.

At the same time, we have to acknowledge the fact, that the human infant, regardless, how familiar and recognisable as a human being, is merely a bundle of reflexes, with a large variety of potentials for the development of human faculties. Physically, the newly born infant is already remarkably complete, but each organ still has to grow, and, all the programming of the central nervous system with memory-traces and guidance-structures, still has to take place.

We know, now, that the way sense impressions are going to be "handled", depends, first of all, upon the genetically determined constants of neural organisation, (which includes a set of genetically encoded, instinctive behaviour-patterns and cerebral classification mechanisms), but, the way these reaction-patterns are modified and developed by conscious and sub-conscious awarenesses, depends, to a very large extent, upon the happenstance of contact and stimulation, as well as upon the nature and content of the cultural code in which a human being is growing-up.

It has always been difficult to believe, that the mere development of a normal human fetus and its subsequent exposure to the world of extra-uterine existence, is sufficient to explain the emergence of the faculties of conscious awareness and moral behaviour. The distance between human behaviour and the non-verbalisable forms of animal awareness, seems so large, and, our psychological experiences seem to be so far removed from the animal world, that man has believed, throughout history, to have been the recipient of "something special"; something, that sets him apart from the world of other living existence. This "something special" has been verbalised in a number of ways; like a "divine spark", or, an "immortal soul".

These concepts have led to prolonged discussions about the question, when such a divine spark or immortal soul has been received by the developing human being. Under the influence of scientific observations, we have come to the conclusion, that such ideas are incorrect, and, that the human being does not possess any characteristics that set it apart from all the other species' of life. Certainly, the human species possesses some capabilities to an extent that is not mirrored in other species', like the ability to think and speak, but, these abilities are not the result of a "gift" from a Divine Intelligence. As a matter of fact, modern observations of nature, including observations about the nature of our own existence, have cast doubt on the concepts of a "Created Reality".

We have come to the conclusion, that, all manifestations of human behaviour, including those of thought, moral behaviour and the worship of God, are the result of a normally developing human potential, which has been nourished by social and family contacts. Yet, in spite of such an audacious conclusion, the feeling persists, for most people, that such a scientific imagery about the origins of human capabilities, is superficial, incomplete, incredible and emotionally unsatisfactory.

Indeed, these concepts are still poorly supported, because it is not only difficult to prove, that man is a product of natural evolution, but, it is even more difficult to trace, with any degree of certainty, the transitions between animal awareness and those of the human being. It is still so difficult to explain the capability to formulate concepts and thoughts, or, the ability to make moral choices, to feel compassion, and to sacrifice for the sake of others, or, for the sake of an ideal or belief.

For those of us, who strongly believe, that the imagery of the sciences and natural evolution will, eventually, provide us with a truly coherent and universally acceptable picture of human existence, we like to sound a note of caution. We should realise, that such a picture is still far from complete, and, that we all have to work hard, and, with an open mind, in order to enhance the persuasiveness of these ideas.

We would completely miss our objectives, if we would try to use the methods of unquestionable authority, when trying to stifle resistance to these ideas or cope with doubts about them. We have to discuss, openly and honestly, not only, between ourselves, but, also, with those, who believe in Creation and a special relationship between man and his Creator. If we scorn such ideas, we show ourselves to be ignorant of a deeply rooted tradition, as well as a psychologically attractive and well-established structure of beliefs. We would be ignorant of the fact, that such imagery is, in many ways, highly logical, because it avoids the apparently preposterous audacity of assigning the faculty of creative intelligence exclusively to the human mind.

We have to acknowledge, frankly, the many weaknesses that are associated with an attempt to grasp reality with the imagery of science and evolutionary change, and, we have to admit, clearly, to ourselves as well as anyone else who wants to listen to our ideas, that, evolutionary concepts lead us, indeed, to a disturbing feeling of relativity. This feeling of relativity is disturbing, because our reality experiences lose the quality of "absolute certainty". Similarly, we should never forget, and, we should openly admit to the fact, that the concepts of relativity apply just as much to our scientific and evolutionary imagery.

We have to acknowledge this fact, clearly and honestly, and, if this aspect is not perceived by those who disagree with us, we should show our opponents in the debate, where the weaknesses lie in our point of view. After all, the excercise of such a discussion is not to obtain an intellectual victory, because we would, then, once again, use the power of intelligence merely as a weapon in an intellectual battle. The purpose of a discussion is to share ideas, and, to explore the reasons, why we think differently.

The purpose of a discussion is to see, whether or not we can solve the problems that arise from differing interpretations of reality. Such differences may hamper, seriously, our efforts to find collective possibilities of existence within a framework of global harmony. Our differing ideas about what man is, and, what he ought to be, make us also differ in our judgements about what is right and what is wrong; what is justice and injustice, and, we disagree, then, also, about human rights and the responsibilities and obligations we have towards each other and the world at large.

The concepts of a "relativity of truth" are, probably, the most fundamental contributions made by a biological and evolutionary perception of reality. However, the idea of a relativity of truth has antedated a precise theoretical formulation on the basis of evolutionary and scientific insights, because many pragmatic attempts have been made to find common denominators for cooperation on a large social scale, while ignoring or minimising differences in the basic perceptions of reality.

An evolutionary point of view, supported by numerous scientific observations, combined with insights from a study of history and human behaviour, should provide us with a solid base upon which to build a comprehensive perception of a relativistic reality, in spite of the fact, that many scientific workers still adhere, at least, intuitively, to the notion of an absolute scientific truth, and, in spite of the fact, that a relativistic interpretation of reality is psychologically uncomfortable and unsettling.

A relativistic and psychological approach to the perception of reality makes it logical, and understandable, why a particular religious creed may become so valuable and so important for a certain community, that its members will fight and kill with ferocity and vigour when defending their religious convictions, in spite of the fact, that the religious creed commands its followers to love their enemies. We can understand, now, why the beauty of a deeply experienced psychological truth, expressed in an attractive structure of religious beliefs, may become so valuable, that, anyone, who dares to question or disagree with these beliefs, becomes, not only, an enemy of the people, but, also, an enemy of God.

The fanatic intolerance shown by people who rely, completely and fervently, upon the unquestionable truth of their beliefs, is fully understandable from a relativistic point of view. The precepts of these belief structures may be grossly at variance with the behavioural practices of fervent believers, and yet, this discrepancy is seldom, if ever, appreciated by them.

A relativistic truth shows us, not only, the rationale of religious behaviour, but, it shows us, also, the relativity of good and evil. Good and Evil lose their absolute meaning, and are re-interpreted as the varying existential requirements of living organisms. A relativistic truth shows, clearly, how the judgement of good and evil depends upon existential pressures, or, the possibilities of an opportunistic gain, and, the judgement of good and evil will, therefore, always show a diametrically opposed orientation and interpretation, whenever two communities or individuals are in a state of competitive strife or violent confrontation.

An evolutionary interpretation of the forces that organise non-organic matter into living complexes, shows us a series of generalised mechanisms to which each human being and social entity is exposed. We see, how, we, ourselves, become an entity of living existence by virtue of the precise encoding of a set of organising instructions. With the help of a biologically inherited central nervous system and the contents of our experiences and awarenesses, we become a specific individual, largely by absorbing a specific cultural input from our social environment.

We have learned to understand, how we function; how we exhibit in our physical make-up and instinctive behaviour-patterns, the dictates of our genetic code, but, we have also learned to appreciate, how strongly the execution of a conscious behavioural act depends upon our belief structures, our past and present experiences, as well as upon the way we have formulated a variety of short- and long-term objectives.

A review of our biological origins gives us an insight into the mechanisms, how experiences may become verbalisable awarenesses, but, these ideas are speculative, and, they may well have to be modified significantly, before they can function as an adequate representative symbol for our concepts about these matters. Yet, the idea, that conscious awareness is based upon the ability to bring a memory-trace voluntarily back into a focus of attention, (with the help of a dialogue of mimicry, gesticulation, or arbitrary vocal sound-symbols), is so powerful, that some form of imagery along these lines will, eventually, gain a major, perhaps, even, global recognition and acceptance.

We have learned to abstract the principles of natural evolution of life-forms, as a search for possibilities of existence. This search is fueled by the energy-gradients created by the mechanisms of electron excitation in a variety of chemical substances. All life-forms are, in essence, a channel for the dissipation of this energy-gradient, consisting of high-energy electron bonds, but, in the process of dissipation, the numerous facets of natural evolution have found a possibility to exist. Many substances are synthesised and life-forms become larger, more complex, and, often, more specialised as a result of the inevitable mechanisms of competitive existence between these channels of energy-dissipation.

Indeed, specialisation in function is the immediate answer to the adaptative demands made by a specific mode of existence, or a particular ecological niche, and, a perfect or near-perfect fit leads, often, to a great but temporary predominance of such successful life-forms. Eventually, circumstances change again, and, they often change so radically, that the limits of adaptative responsiveness have been reached. Decline and extinction become then inevitable, and further evolutionary developments are taken-over by another form of life; a different species, that has developed a long time ago, hidden by obscurity and precarious circumstances. This species may represent a new or novel mode of existence, which, finally, many generations, or, even, many species' later, finds a rare opportunity to occupy a dominant ecological niche.

Multi-cellular development is one such fundamentally important adaptation to the demands of changing circumstances, but, we see, also, that, in spite of the enormous success of a variety of multi-cellular organisation patterns and the complete dominance of this type of life amongst the larger living structures, uni-cellular existence is still around and abundantly varied. The new possibilities of existence that were opened-up to the successful multi-cellular organisation patterns, show us, clearly, how much larger the range of existence became with such a multi-cellular pattern of organisation, and yet, uni-cellular life remained viable; not only, in a watery environment, but in the air, on land, and, also, as a parasitic form of existence on, and within, the larger multi-cellular life-forms themselves.

We have seen, how we inherit with our genetic instructions, not only, a carefully guarded blue-print for the construction of our multi-cellular body, but, also, a package of primary behavioural instructions in order to relate successfully to our environment. We have also inherited the ability, as well as the need, to associate ourselves in small socially integrated groupings, because, as solitary individuals, we are extremely vulnerable, and, in particular, the up-bringing of the younger generations requires cooperation between adult members in a social structure.

The human youngster grows-up in a state of complete dependence and trust upon his social environment, and, he is slowly weaned from this dependence as his faculties unfold. We can now interpret the basic patterns of human behaviour in terms of existential requirements, and, we know, that the human being will always have to choose, not only, between benefit and harm for himself, but, also, between his own needs and the needs of others.

We have traced, in other essays, the beginnings of ethical behaviour-patterns by showing, how a child grows-up in a close-knit social environment, and, how it learns to substitute, at least, to a certain extent, the desire for immediate gratification with an experience of security and comfort that comes with approval, respect and affection from this social environment.

We have learned to understand the principles of dominance and submissiveness; in the societies of cells, as well as the societies of human beings, and, we have analysed the basic pre-requisites for a successful multi-individual social organisation. We know, now, that social cohesion has to be based upon an increase in well-being for every member of the group. We have learned to understand, that, any social grouping is a unit in name only, held together by brute force, as soon as a segment of its population is exploited and oppressed by a dominant elite.

Cellular egocentricity is rigorously controled by chemical mechanisms arising as instructions from the genetic code, but, for the larger human societies, we have to construct a code of controls over socially beneficial behaviour-patterns with the help of our collective awarenesses and insights. There are no genetic instructions for a successful pattern of large-scale human organisation, and, if we leave the functions of leadership entirely in the hands of those who dominate, we will always see large fluctuations in the quality of leadership excercised by such dominant personalities.

If leaders happen to be gifted and well-developed people, with a broadly based ability to identify with all the segments of society, their rule and leadership may be highly beneficial, but, if the leadership falls into the hands of a frightened, insecure and introvert personality, social disaster, chaos, suffering and injustice will be the inevitable outcome.

We can learn from the neural guidance-patterns that forge a community of cells into the entity and individuality of a multi-cellular organism, and, we have outlined many ideas about the structuring of bureaucratic channels along these evolutionary insights. In the final analysis, a leadership position will have to be given as a conscious gift of trust and responsibility. It is the gift from an informed electorate to a group of equally well-informed and mature individuals, but, there should still be a supra-individual set of Constitutional Guidelines to define the tolerance for leadership behaviour, as well as the mechanisms of leadership succession.

Yet, these Constitutional Guidelines should also guide the attitudes and behaviour patterns of each individual citizen, in recognition of the fact, that the behaviour of ordinary people can be just as destructive, just as egocentric, and, just as detrimental as that of an unsuitable leader, in spite of the fact, that the momentum and influence of one anti-social citizen is not nearly as severe as the havoc created by an anti-social leader.

We know, now, from our studies of the living organisation, that the cells form together, by virtue of their cooperation, the unit of multi-cellular existence, and, we, citizens and members of society, shape and form, ultimately, everything that exists within the multi-individual units of our social environment.

.......

Summary

1. The relevance of multi-cellular life.
   The concept of creation, and the evidence for evolutionary change.
   The art of recognising a valid portrait of "the truth".
   Mechanisms of emotional and intuitive identification.
   The hope, that an intellectual truth may, eventually, stimulate a widely spread sense of beauty.
   Extra-polating insights about multi-cellular organisations to the societies of mankind.
   Man's awarenesses and concepts are evolving into sophisticated perceptions of reality as a result of careful observations and the use of sense-enlarging instruments.
   A belief structure, seen as a biological product.
   Why it is difficult to identify with primitive belief structures.
   Realities were always "real", regardless of their place in the history of reality perceptions.
   Our own efforts will soon fade into history and blend with previous efforts that are often rejected as erroneous or superficial.
   The drive to search for a satisfactory perception of reality.
   Difficulties arising from the multi-cellular nature of our individual existence.
   Questions, and their occasional absence.
   The price to be paid for a non-reflective and thoughtless existence.
   
   
   
2. The concept of a "possibility of existence".
   The evolution of the terrestial environment.
   Daily fluctuations in the level of solar energy, and the capture of solar energy in the form of high-energy electron bonds.
   Complex inter-dependencies between proto-biochemical reactions.
   The enhancement of a possibility to exist.
   Dissipating an energy-gradient, seen as the basic force behind the possibilities of existence for the living organisation.
   A stable state of existence, and the quality of "fluidity".
   A run-down to the lowest level of energy.
   The slipperiness of biochemical reactions and their products.
   Unstable circumstances for inorganic molecules and atoms.
   All atomic elements, except hydrogen, are forged inside huge stars.
   The phenomenon of radio-active decay, or spontaneous nuclear disintegration.
   A near-balance between centripetal restraints and centrifugal pressures.
   The decomposition of an organism after death.
   The life-form, seen as a channel to dissipate an energy-gradient.
   The concept of entropy.
   The organisational key of the genetic code.
   Mechanisms of cellular renewal through an a-sexual or mitotic duplication.
   
   
   
3. The phenomenon of rejuvenation.
   The incomplete renewal of cellular constituents during the lifespan of a cell within a multi-cellular organism.
   Enlargement and growth.
   The convergence of the concepts of growth, enlargement and reproduction.
   The over-crowding of uni-cellular life-forms.
   The mechanisms and consequences of a state of competitive strife.
   The evolutionary main-stream of the living organisation.
   Symbiotic, parasitic, predatory and saprophytic life-forms.
   Does cellular gigantism still exist?
   Using a source of abundant materials.
   The many forces that play a role in an ecological balance.
   Details of the state of competitive strife.
   An apparent stability, and an essential lability.
   Cellular specialisations.
   The swing between the threat of starvation and the possibility to reproduce.
   The emergence of a "cellular elite".
   
   
   
4. The relentless pressure towards territorial expansion by a successful life-form.
   Population pressures, and the lure of aggressive gains.
   Territorial expansion and the trend towards divergence.
   An inevitable step towards predatory behaviour-patterns.
   The animal; an obligatory predatorial form of life.
   Inter-dependence on a level of equality; symbiosis.
   Metabolic and functional inter-dependencies, seen as forerunners of multi-cellular existence.
   A review of uni-cellular existence.
   An eternal arms-race.
   A "locale" and a "habitat".
   The assumption, that many more species' have become extinct than we know of.
   The search for security in a large size; gigantism.
   The importance of a flow of water past or through a living organism; contractile proteins and the flagellum.
   Major evolutionary innovations occur unobtrusively in species' under severe existential pressures, and the full significance of such innovations may only become apparent many species' later.
   Why successful organisms are, necessarily, "conservative".
   Any development into a specific direction opens-up potential liabilities.
   An example; the affluent human society.
   The importance, and weakness, of the cultural code.
   Human extinction; a tragedy?
   The sponge.
   
   
   
5. Still existing species' give us only a rough outline of the pathways of natural evolution.
   A search for the general principles of evolutionary change.
   The embryological development of a multi-cellular organism.
   Does embryological development reflect an evolutionary past?
   More likely, it reflects the history of a specific genetic code, and the way it was "put together".
   Differences between the history of natural evolution and the development of a specific genetic code.
   Differences of the "last digit".
   The morphology of early embryogenesis.
   The "node of Hansen".
   The three-layered disc; the neural tube and the formation of "mesenchymal segments".
   The overall outlines of the "head-regions" of the neural tube.
   A complex morphology, and a largely unknown sequence of chemical inductor substances.
   The change from a state of omni- or pluri-potentiality to a state of specialisation.
   The node of Hansen; the "primary organiser" of the embryo.
   A more detailed look at the embryology of the central nervous system.
   Are cells "dragged" along or across by organising clusters of cells or chemical potentials?
   Injury to the nerve-axon.
   Convincing evidence for nerve-elongations by relative movements of cells and organs during growth and maturation of the body.
   The orientation in space, and, later, in time.
   The link with human reality perceptions.
   Why we have to teach these principles of understanding to future generations.
   The need for hard philosophical work in order to develop a flowing and persuasive imagery of man.
   
   
   
6. A rturn to embryogenesis.
   A leadership function for cellular as well as social differentiations or specialisations; striking parallels.
   The "trek" of the node of Hansen.
   A variety of simultaneous regional developments.
   Organising systems that operate in the fully differentiated body; hormonal regulators and the more specific "topical" instructions by nerve-cell connections.
   Regulatory functions with the help of antagonistic mechanisms.
   The bulk of the central nervous system regulates the relationships of the organism with its environment.
   The hierarchical strata of the central nervous system.
   A gradient of organisational powers.
   The contemporary relevance of detailed knowledge about these matters.
   Academic and clinical applications.
   The link with future philosophical concerns.
   Inducing competitive cells to tolerate each other at close quarters.
   The problem, that nearly all intermediary evolutionary life-forms have vanished and are not available for study or observation.
   The sponge re-visited.
   A brief review of conceptual problems and speculative images.
   Replacing combat with the mechanisms of dominance and submissiveness.
   The importance of the trend towards social integration.
   The insect colony, seen as a supra-individual behavioural unit.
   A search for conclusions that may be helpful in the organisation of our own social environments.
   The fallacy of trying to solve our problems only regionally or temporarily; the need for a broad grasp over human existence.
   
   
   
7. We begin life as a fertilised egg-cell.
   The continuous chain of living existence.
   Unfamiliarity with the early stages of human existence.
   The infant as a bundle of reflexes.
   The faculty of conscious awareness is absent at the time of birth.
   The timing of birth is determined by viability considerations.
   An extremely long maturation period for the human being.
   The incomplete development of the central nervous system at the time of birth.
   The potential for an increasing level of awareness throughout our entire life-span.
   The question of "being human".
   The three major stages of human development.
   A strong instinct to provide parental care.
   The probability, that confused cultural guidelines severely affect the quality of parental care.
   Neglect and remorse.
   The need for truly coherent concepts and generally acceptable reality perceptions.
   Ambivalent attitudes.
   The question of the deliberately induced abortion.
   A cold analysis of fuzzy and ambivalent attitudes.
   A justified protest against the abuse of sexuality and sexual differences.
   A plea to keep natural, biologically shaped differences in mind and in perspective.
   A sermon to us, males.
   
   
   
8. A return to the fertilised egg-cell.
   A review of the continuous and unbreakable sequence of reproduction and development for every species of life.
   The importance of having clear concepts about the origins and embryogenesis of our own existence.
   The tendency to believe in a "divine spark", or an "immortal soul".
   Endless discussions.
   The conclusion, that the scientific imagery is audacious, irreverent, superficial and emotionally unsatisfactory.
   A warning to those, who have wholeheartedly accepted the scientific imagery.
   Let us refrain from authoritarian attitudes, dogmatism and the repression of dissent.
   The purpose of a discussion or debate is to share mental images; not to win an intellectual battle.
   A disturbing sense of relativity.
   Why we have to make our reality perceptions more compatible with each other.
   The concept of a "relativity of truth", seen as the most fundamental contribution of our biological and evolutionary insights.
   A solid basis for understanding and constructing a clear and vivid mental picture of reality.
   Problems with religious belief structures.
   The scourge of fanatic behaviour and intolerance.
   Good and Evil, seen in an existential light.
   A potentially global relevance for relativistic reality perceptions.
   A final review of the mechanisms of specialisation and multi-cellular existence.
   The Constitutional code, needed for a stable, viable, large-scale social organisation of human beings.
   A final analysis of individualised and socially integrated existence.

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