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THE AMBIVALENCE OF DEPENDENCE
dangerous and advantageous forms of interdependence
A Study in Thought
sa053
by
Marius Heuff
Chapter 1
Content
Inter-dependence and symbiosis; definitions.
Symbiosis, parasitism and predation.
Relationships between people.
The evolution of organisational patterns.
The "cell".
Inter-dependencies between radiant and orbital energy-forms.
All events require a set of suitable conditions, before they can take place.
Testing, fluidly, every niche of existence possibilities.
The conditions of existence.
A conglomerate of inter-dependence may overcome individual vulnerabilities of
the participating members.
Pre-cellular evolution.
The tendency to re-establish an equilibrium of opposing force-fields.
The break-through of "complementary events"; the chain-reaction.
1 Inter-dependence is a
dependence upon each other, and, because the most important forms of dependence
are relationships between human beings, these terms are more or less
inter-changeable, in spite of the fact, that the term
"inter-dependence" may give the impression, that we are dealing with
a mutually beneficial form of dependence between more or less equally placed
organisms. The latter concept is more precisely and sharply defined in the word
"symbiosis". We will use the term inter-dependence, therefore, as a
representative symbol for all sorts of relationships between people, regardless
of the aspect of mutual benefit, and, without the specific implication that the
parties involved are more or less equal in strength or importance.
2 Our discussion will not remain
limited, however, to dependencies between people. We will often refer to other
forms of dependence and inter-dependence in nature, be it between living or
non-living systems. Let us first discuss the concept of dependence itself. What
do we mean with the existence or development of a state of dependence? Why
would such a state develop, in particular, since it is, so often, associated
with less desirable features or results? How does dependence relate to the more
specific concept of symbiosis, and, when does symbiosis slide into a state of
parasitism or predation?
3 Do we see parasitic and
predatory aspects in the relationships of human beings? To what extent is human
existence dependent upon the inter-dependencies operating within a complex,
multi-cellular organism, and, how can we distinguish between advantageous and
harmful dependencies? Before we can answer this last question, we have to ask;
advantageous or harmful for whom?
4 Is there necessarily always a
trade-off? Is it necessary, that an advantage for one party is, at the same
time, a disadvantage for someone else? Does this mean, that equality and
justice are only obtained, if individual members of a relationship of
inter-dependence receive a nearly equal mix of beneficial and harmful, or
positive and negative results?
5 Is it possible, that a
relationship does not have to be an antagonistic trade-off? Can we see in the
relationships between human beings practical applications of the concepts and
mechanisms of a "symbiosis", where all the members benefit? Is it
really possible to have a relationship that is truly beneficial for both parties;
with a scrupulously equal burden of contribution, and yet, a decisively
positive return for both?
6 There are examples of such a
mutually beneficial state of symbiosis in nature, and, occasionally, in small
human groupings as well, but, we see, also, that this condition is vulnerable,
and, that it slides easily into a condition of parasitism, where one party is
exploited for the benefit of the other.
7 Before we begin to discuss the
questions about the relationships between people and between other living
entities, we should go back and survey, quickly, current ideas and concepts
about the existence of matter and energy. We will see, that, even, the
existence of the most elementary forms of matter and energy are dependent upon
a variety of conditions, and, we willl note, that the existence of any complex,
inorganic particle is characterised by a set of relationships or dependencies
forming, together, the essence of a "higher system" or more complex
unit.
8 A complex unit of
inter-dependencies may exist rather independently from other complex units,
but, it is still governed by a range of external or environmental conditions or
circumstances making its existence possible. Frequently, the existence of a
particular system of inorganic existence depends, also, on the existence of
another unit. For example, inorganic molecules exist as a combination of two or
more atomic elements, which are already complex units of inorganic existence.
9 Life itself consists of a
conglomerate of inter-dependent biochemical reactions, which found, eventually,
after a billion years or more of evolutionary experimentation on a gigantic
scale, a possibility to exist as an organised system of inter-dependencies; the
"cell". The cellular unit is an example of a complex system of
fragile inter-dependencies, which requires a rather narrowly defined range of
physical conditions in order to remain intact, structurally and functionally,
and, this condition of structural and functional integrity is characterised by
the concept of "being alive".
10 The lability and fragility of
many essential biochemical substances and reaction-patterns, (forming,
together, the functional and structural unit of the cell), make it necessary to
receive a continuous influx of a minimum level of suitable energy in order to
prevent a chaotic disorganisation of this unstable unit of fluctuating
inter-dependencies. On the other hand, the existence of such a large number of
fragile and labile biochemical reactions in the cell is, not only, a liability,
but, also, the crucial condition that makes the characteristics of reactability
and adaptability possible in the living organisation.
11 At the present stage of our
conceptual development, we have learned to see, that, matter and energy are
different manifestations of an essential unit; matter-energy. The different
forms of matter-energy readily change from a radiant form of energy to an
orbital one, or, vice versa. The details of these transitions are complex, and,
we do not have a clear picture, as yet, how, and, under what conditions, these
transitions between the orbital and radiant forms of energy take place.
12 For our purposes, here, we do
not have to concern ourselves with a coherent series of mental images in order
to satisfy our sense of logic and quest for detail. We know, that these
transitions between the orbital and radiant forms of matter-energy do take
place under a variety of circumstances. The primary conversion of matter or
orbital energy to radiant energy takes place in the interior of stars, where
huge pressures and high temperatures fragment the atomic units of matter, in
particular, the nuclei of atoms, liberating very large amounts of radiant
energy, while forging, at the same time, more complex nuclear configurations.
13 However, radiant energy is
produced, also, by an ordinary light-bulb, when the kinetic energy of moving
electrons is able to generate enough heat to produce a significant emission of
radiation in the spectrum of visible light. As a matter of fact, radiant energy
is represented by a large spectrum of electro-magnetic wave-fronts, ranging
from radio-waves to heat, light, ultra-violet light and X-rays, including the
very penetrating, high-frequency gamma rays and cosmic rays. Most of the
radiant or electro-magnetic forms of energy do not require the high pressures
and temperatures of stellar interiors in order to perpetuate their existence,
but, at the same time, we are not dealing, then, with the transition of orbital
energy into radiant energy. For example, in the production of radio-waves, heat
or light, we see, that other sources of energy, such as an electrical
force-field is the driving source behind the production of these radiant
energy-forms.
14 Similarly, we do not know much
about the ways radiant energy-forms, or electro-magnetic radiation, reverts to
an orbital existence in the form of elementary particles. However, we do know
that radiant energy can easily be "absorbed" by orbital energy or
matter in the form of an increased atomic or molecular agitation, which we call
"heat" or thermal energy. Radiant energy can also be captured in a
more specific way, such as the excitation of an orbiting electron by photons
with a suitable wave-length and energy-content. This is the source of energy
that made the existence of life possible during this gigantic pre-cellular
experiment of natural evolution with the living organisation of matter and
energy.
15 We want to emphasise, here, only
the idea, that all these transitions require a set of specific circumstances or
conditions, before they can take place, and, therefore, it is justifiable to
speak about a certain "dependence". Every event in nature is bound to
a certain set of conditions, and, these conditions are themselves, again, the
result of events that took place, earlier, or, perhaps, even, simultaneously.
Every happening or event is, therefore, woven into a web of inter-dependencies,
where the creation of a certain series of conditions, opens-up the possibility
for another event to take place. The fact, that this event took place, may, in
turn, result in a set of conditions opening-up the possibility for yet another
event, etc., etc.
16 Sometimes, these events or
happenings are taking place randomly, as we visualise in the evolution of
biochemical reactions in a protoplasmic primordium. In other circumstances, the
events follow a much more clear-cut line of "guided" developments,
leading to expected and predictable results, such as the series of nuclear
transformations taking place in the interior of stars. If we know the size or
mass of a star and the duration of its existence, we have a fairly good idea
what sort of nuclear reactions are taking place within such a star or complex
of stars.
17 All forms of existence, be it
radiant or orbital forms of energy, depend upon specific circumstances, and,
this means, also, that a certain reaction, development or event will take
place, only, if the circumstances "allow" such a flow of reactions to
take place. Certainly, if the energy-level is not sufficient, or, if the matter
or building materials for a certain reaction or event are insufficient, the
possibilities of existence will not be "realised" or actualised, but,
we may include these conditions of a sufficient energy-level and adequate
building materials, together with conditions of temperature, pressure, gravity,
etc., within the overall concept of "suitable conditions".
18 If the conditions are suitable,
a particular reaction or development will take place, and, this concept or idea
is represented by the term or expression; "possibilities of
existence". If water flows into a valley or a river-bed, it will seek-out
all its "possibilities of existence", and, we see it flow, here and
there, testing, fluidly, every niche of existence possibilities. The conditions
which make this possible, yes, inevitable, are the influx of water, the
gravitational energy-gradient, the internal fluidity of water, and the confines
of the river-bed. If any of these conditions change, the events or happenings
change, too.
19 We emphasise, here, a seemingly
self-evident example of a fluid search for a possibility to exist, or occupy an
area of the river-bed, because this process has so many similarities with the
evolution of life, and, we want to emphasise, here, the all-important concept
of a "possibility of existence". A possibility of existence, means,
that a substance, an energy-form, or a system of energy-forms, requires certain
conditions to exist. These conditions are usually defined by a specific
force-field and temperature range, a certain number of substances and
energy-states, as well as a series of specific "internal" conditions
that are described by the concepts of fluidity and fragility, or, a limited
internal resistance to "stress" or "force-fields" of one
kind or another.
20 If all these conditions are
present, a certain system or energy-form will exist. We have learned to
delineate many conditions of existence for specific systems, by analysing the
range of circumstances under which a particular system or substance can or can
not exist. Once we have learned to see, what circumstances make the existence
of a particular matter-particle or energy-state possible, we conclude, that we
should be able to find such an existence again, if, and when, we encounter an
identical series of circumstances and conditions.
21 If we do not find such
existence, we look for an explanation or reason, why such a possibility of
existence has not been actualised or materialised, or, why such an ecological
niche has not been filled by a species of the living organisation. Usually, we
come to the conclusion, that we have overlooked one or more conditions
necessary for a particular form of existence, and, we have learned something
new about the behaviour of a particular form of existence.
22 This principle can also be
summarised by saying, that, all existence depends upon a series of factors,
and, we know, that we can classify the conditions, existing at a particular
time and locality, into factors favouring a particular existence and factors
that hamper or prevent such existence.
23 If we look at the much more
complex existence of a "system" of inter-dependent items of
existence, we see, that the range of conditions favouring the existence of such
a system, becomes much more stringent and more limiting. Yet, at the same time,
under suitable circumstances, (such as, when the components of a system
complement each other), it is possible for a system to have greater
possibilities of existence than each individual component. This is only
possible, if the conglomerate of inter-dependent components negates, in one way
or another, the vulnerabilities of the individual components or items of
existence.
24 For example, let us again
imagine ourselves to be silent and non-participating witnesses of this gigantic
experiment of biochemical evolution, before the single cell had found a
possibility to exist. We see, how sun-light has warmed the shallow seas, and,
how a large variety of salts and inorganic components have been dissolved and
ionised into this pool of luke-warm water. Even before we begin to consider the
energy contribution made by the capture of solar energy in the form of excited,
high-energy electrons in orbit around atoms or complex molecules, we see, how the
influx of substances from rivers and the dissolution of salts from rocks, as
well as the precipitation of substances with the rains and the occasional flash
of lightning, create many opportunities for chemical combinations and
re-combinations.
25 The dissolution and ionisation
of substances is one of the most important conditions to create an
environmental "climate" that is favourable for random chemical
combinations and re-combinations. Together with the less specific chemical and
thermal energies provided by a luke-warm temperature, the mechanisms of
ionisation and fluctuating concentration gradients, we see the capture of solar
energy in the form of high-energy electron bonds emerge as a powerful driving
force behind numerous chemical events.
26 Let us now visualise a specific
example of a chemical transformation; because of a specific set of
circumstances at a particular locale, the presence of a specific chemical
compound is favoured. The production of such a compound will take place, until
the concentration of building materials, the energy-gradient, or some other
essential condition, changes sufficiently to slow-down and halt the process of
production. We see, that every happening or event changes the circumstances,
and, as a rule, the occurrence of an event, or the production of a chemical
compound, builds-up counter-pressures or exhausts facilitating factors, until
the event ceases to take place.
27 We say, then, that a new
equilibrium has been reached. However, after an equilibirum has been reached,
it does not mean, that the circumstances do not change anymore. Perhaps, the
rate of change has been slowed, at least, for a while, but, eventually,
conditions will change again. Other substances may have drifted-in from a
neighbouring area. The temperature may have changed, more excited electron
bonds may have formed, eager to give-off their energy and revert back to their
original position.
28 One thing we can besure of. The
conditions and circumstances are always changing, even, if there is no specific
event taking place at a particular locale. Eventually, these changes create a
new possibiliy of existence for another event, as well as the production of
another chemical compound. Then, a particular event will take place and this
causes again rapid and drastic changes of the local conditions, until, once
more, an equilibrium sets in and things slow-down for a while.
29 However, it is also possible,
that the occurrence of a particular event, together with the creation or
accumulation of a specific substance, leads immediately to the occurrence of
another event. It may be, that the rapid accumulation of a certain product
opens-up the possibility for another event or reaction to take place, because
this reaction uses the end-product of one particular event as a building-block
or "substrate" for its own event. Then, these two reactions begin to
take place simultaneously.
30 If this happens, the duration of
the initial event may be prolonged. No counter-pressures develop because of the
accumulation of a new product, and, the reaction may take place with an
accelerated tempo because of the absence of inhibiting counter-pressures. In
any case, it is obvious, that the changes in the conditions and circumstances
of this locale are different, whenever we see such a coupling of a series of
events, which is, in essence, the beginning of a "chain-reaction". If
the limiting factor of the first event would, indeed, be the accumulation of
the "end product", then, the occurrence of a subsequent reaction
using this end- or waste-product, prolongs the existence possibilities of the
first event.
31 We see, then, that the first
event gains in durability, or viability, by the occurrence of the second event,
and, at the same time, we note, that the second event is dependent upon the
occurrence of the first event, because it needs the constant supply of the
end-product of the first event in order to find conditions that are suitable
for its own occurrence. Here, we see an example, where the occurrence of two
linked and inter-dependent events enhances the viability of these two events
occurring together, compared to the viability or possibilities of existence for
each event, separately.
.......
Chapter 2
Content
Fluctuations in conditions and circumstances.
Excited electrons.
The barriers of "night-fall".
A difficult imagery to work with, or believe in.
The whole machinery must have "clicked together".
A Creative Intelligence, versus an Evolutionary Search.
A confluence between the concepts of creation and evolution.
Mechanisms and consequences of polymerisation.
Duplicating a structure with complementary strands.
Growth in the living and non-living systems.
The protoplasmic primordium has disappeared.
Reproduction depends on the "creation" of specific, favourable
circumstances.
A "nest" of very complex inter-dependencies.
Evolutionary adaptations.
The evolution of creative designs.
1 The fortuitous occurrence of
two events that sustain each other and enhance their possibilities of
existence, must be the exception, because it is far more likely, that an event
will rapidly create changes that counter-act its possibilities of existence. It
seems reasonable, therefore, to visualise the primordial protoplasm as an
ever-changing and fluctuating field of possibilities of existence for a large
number of chemical and physical events. We have to concentrate our attention
upon one particular event or happening, but, we see in the background of our
sphere of awarenesses an undulating field of conditions and possibilities of
existence, creating, simultaneously, many different opportunities of existence
at many different places.
2 One of the most important
fluctuations in the conditions and circumstances of the protoplasmic primordium
must have been the alternation between sun-light and darkness. The luke-warm
seas cooled-off during the night, but not sufficiently to disturb the processes
of ionisation. However, the capture of solar energy in the form of excited
high-energy electron-bonds would have been halted during the night, and, most
of the captured energy would, probably, have been released again in the form of
light; an early form of (bio)luminescence. Chemical reaction-patterns would
generally depend upon the energy provided by excited or "high-energy"
bonds, and, these reaction-patterns would have a tendency to revert direction,
or "run-down" towards their lowest possible energy-levels, during the
night, when the driving force of the electro-chemical energy-gradient has
fallen-away.
3 It seems justified to compare
the daily influx of energy during day-light, as well as the regularly recurring
episodes of night-fall, with the regularly recurring cycles of ebb and flood,
which have also been used by numerous uni-cellular and multi-cellular organism
as an ecological niche for the exploration of existence possibilities.
4 With this background in mind,
it is not difficult to visualise, how numerous, complex biochemical
chain-reactions found a possibility to exist, because of the influx of solar
energy and its capture by excitable electrons, but, the periods of darkness and
the cessation of solar energy-capture during the night, must have been
formidable obstacles in the search for a more enduring possibility of
existence, bridgeing this nightly hiatus in the supply of solar energy. Only,
when electro-chemical energy could be stored in some sort of a reservoir that
would be available during the period of darkness, was it likely, that the
barrier of night-fall could be crossed.
5 How the biochemical evolution
took place, during this first billion years of the earth's existence, is a
matter of conjecture, and, the scope of this natural experiment is so
unimaginable, that we may safely assume, that every conceivable chemical
combination and permutation was tried-out by the force-fields of natural
selection. Just because of this unimaginable scale of the natural experiment
with biochemical existence possibilities, we have no difficulties accepting the
idea, that the living cell was, ultimately, the sole survivor of this essentially
blind evolutionary search for possibilities of existence. The living cell still
represents the only viable state of complex, protoplasmic inter-dependencies
upon which all life rests. The cell is a system of biochemical
inter-dependencies, fore-shadowing in its complex relationships the many
possibilities of survival and actualisation of the species' of life; of the
past and present.
6 Each biochemical sequence must
have been the result of an unimaginable and incalculable number of trials and errors,
and, even so, on numerous occasions, the sequence must have disappeared again,
before the mechanisms of guided reproduction were able to take care of the
mechanisms of renewal. Such a process of renewal becomes an essential element
in the chain of possibilities of existence, especially, after a biochemical
"production plant" or sequence has become worn and defective.
7 We do not even dare to
speculate, how, eventually, all these different sequences, (from respiratory
and oxidative processes to lytic enzymes and the synthesis of carbo-hydrates,
fats and proteins), came toghether, and, how the genetic encoding came-about
that allowed a cell, at a certain, opportune moment, to reproduce itself. The
mechanisms of cell-formation must have been "worked-out" in a vast
and long-ranging experiment, before the whole machinery
"clicked-together" and found the degree of endurance and flexibility
that made it possible for the living organisation to exist, until today.
8 It is not surprising, that many people find it easier to believe, that life is due to an act of Creation by an Intelligent, Superior Being, because, it is easier to visualise a Deliberate Design, rather than an experimental and essentially blind Evolutionary Search. Yet, all evidence points to the occurrence of such an experimental and blind Evolutionary Search, and not to a deliberate juxta-position of complementary parts by a Creative Intelligence, as is the case, when man constructs a tool or a machine.
9 The construction of a living
organism, the reproduction of the genetic code, as well as the numerous
regulatory mechanisms that take place in the living system, are events, that
depend upon the formation, or creation, of a set of stable and favourable
circumstances, where these necessary biochemical sequences have a chance to
take place.
10 I see your eyes light-up upon
reading the word "creation", because you suspect me of contradicting
the principle of a blind Evolutionary Search, and, you think, that I am, after
all, reverting to a point of view, where we see the origin of many specific
forms of existence, including those of life, as the result of a specific and
deliberate Creative Act. Yet, this is not the case, because we use the term
"creation", here, as a mechanism that ensures the development and
maintenance of suitable conditions for the existence of a specific organisation
or function of the living system.
11 We have discussed the concept,
that, all events are dependent upon a series of conditions and circumstances
suitable to their existence. We have not discussed, as yet, the possibility,
that an event can "create" or "formulate" a specific set of
circumstances, which would favour the occurrence of another specific event.
This is somewhat different from the inter-dependence between chain-reactions,
but there are similarities.
12 For example, the polymerisation
or formation of long and complex molecules brings-about a large area, where the
electrical potentials and the spatial configuration of the space in the
immediate neighbourhood of such a molecule, becomes "directed" or
"organised". All along and around these chain-molecules, in the three
dimensions of space, we see a number of "dangling valencies", where
there exist special opportunities for another molecule floating in the protoplasmic
sea to become attached, but, as a result of the many neighbouring structures of
molecules that take part in this chain-molecule, we see, that specific spatial
configurations are preferred at specific locations.
13 Free-floating molecules have to
"dock" by virtue of presenting a three-dimensional, complementary
configuration, before they are able to link-up with a "dangling
valency" or "electrical bond". Therefore, the protoplasmic space
around a complex molecule becomes highly "selective", and specific
molecules are favoured at specific sites. This imagery fore-shadows the manner
in which genetic duplication is accomplished, as well as the
"transcription" of guiding or message-bearing enzymes in the cellular
protoplasm.
14 The main point we want to
emphasise, here, is the fact, that a complex structure creates a complex and
specific environment around itself, and, this presents an opportunity for a
complementary structure to be "deposited" against its sides, provided,
that other requirements, such as sufficient levels of substrate and energy, are
met.
15 Let us visualise a structure
made-up of a complex, double-layered strand of stable, organic or biochemical
material, and, we can imagine, how a longitudinal separation may take place
along the plane where the two layers are attached to each other. The subsequent
apposition of complementary materials from the cellular enviroment, may lead,
under suitable conditions, to the formation of structures that are mirror
images of the "parent" or "guiding" molecules. If these two
newly formed structures come together and form also a double-layered strand,
they will form an exact replica of the original biochemical structure.
16 This imagery is directly based
upon what we know about the duplication of genetic material within a living
cell, but, it is undoubtedly true, that this mode of duplication is the
end-stage of a long evolutionary search for suitable mechanisms to reproduce a
complex organic structure.
17 We see, indeed, many simpler
forms of reproduction, because, even, in the inorganic world, a crystalline
structure has the capability to grow in size and copy its structure by the
apposition of "free floating" molecules at the periphery of its
crystalline lattice.
18 We may state, without any
hesitation, that present terrestial conditions and circumstances are not
conducive, anymore, to the development of another organisation of life from a
protoplasmic primordium. As a matter of fact, conditions on earth have changed
so dramatically since this one billion year period of pre-cellular evolution,
that we have no concrete evidence for the thesis, that such a protoplasmic
primordium really existed.
19 This concept is still a
hypothesis, but it is a hypothesis that has been widely accepted. Not only,
does this hypothesis make the mechanisms of natural evolution plausible at a
chemical or pre-cellular level, but, it also implies, that, now, all life must
come from other life; by virtue of the fact, that the living species' have
within their genetic programming, a carefully guarded set of instructions,
capable of creating suitable environmental conditions, (be it on a very local
scale and of a temporary nature), to allow the development of a fertilised
egg-cell into an embryo, which represents a life-form during the stage of
development. This process of guided and guarded development leads, eventually,
to an adult and reproducing member of a specific species, if everything goes
well.
20 Those species' that have become
extinct, or non-existent, lost the capability of reproduction for one reason or
another. Their genetic code disappeared with the death of the last generation,
and the secret of their organisation and the specifics of their genetic
encoding are lost for good, unless, somehow, the genetic code remained intact
within a fossilised cell. Fossil remains are the only evidence we have of the
myriad of species' that existed at one time or another.
21 Let us make it clear, therefore,
that the "creation" of specific and favourable circumstances to allow
the development of a new generation of a species, or, to allow the production
of specific chemical products within a cell, are functions that are carried-out
by specific, gene-bearing structures. These structures are themselves the
product of a process of exact duplication from one generation to the next, made
possible by such a "created" set of suitable circumstances, but, the
composition and organisation of this code reflects a long and continuous search
for possibilities of existence, which species' carry-out in a process of blind
trial and error.
22 We may state, therefore, that
viability depends, first of all, upon the ability of parental genes to provide
the specific conditions necessary to make the development possible from a
fertilised egg-cell to a newly formed organism. Secondly, viability of a
life-form depends on the genetic endowment of the fertilised egg-cell, because
a complex and carefully timed sequence of biochemical events is necessary to
carry-out the numerous embryological transformations that change a single,
fertilised egg-cell into a tightly organised, well-differentiated and
potential-laden new-born organism.
23 We have opened-up a
"nest" of very complex inter-dependencies indeed. So far, these
inter-dependencies are strictly biological or bio-chemical, ranging from a
primordial protoplasm, billions of years ago, to the present time, where we see
ourselves, merely, as a link beteen the previous and the next generations in
this never-ending search for viability.
24 Before we continue to explore
the many dependencies and inter-dependencies between ourselves, and, between
our existence and the natural environment in which we live, we should explore
an interesting side-line. We have alluded to the contrasting concepts of a
blind Evolutionary Search, (as we see in the development of the primordial
cell, as well as the many species' that search, fluidly, for a possibility to
enhance and prolong their existence), as well as the "created",
deliberately put-together items of existence. The latter is reflected in the
concept of the Creation of the world, together with all its creatures and other
forms of existence. These ideas and concepts are summarised by the imagery of
many different religious beliefs.
25 Yet, how valid is it to see the
concepts of evolution and creation as mutually exclusive? Is natural evolution,
indeed, an example of a purely blind search for existence possibilities, and,
are the creations of man pure creations, without an element of searching by
blind trial and error? Indeed, the aspects of creativity and a blind trial and
error are always inter-twined.
26 We see, clearly, as we have
discussed before, that, only the composition of the genetic code is searched
for "blindly" by the processes of trial and error, but, the processes
of genetic duplication, as well as the metabolic mechanisms within the cellular
protoplasm, are guided by specifically "created" circumstances.
Similarly, we will come to the conclusion, that, man's artifacts are partly the
result of a process of "mental foreseeing" and the deliberate
juxta-position of items of existence, (creation), but, there is also an
important element of trial and error when designing a useful tool or a piece of
art, (evolution).
27 Let us review, briefly, some of
the mechanisms behind the concept of a blind, evolutionary search. Sometimes,
only a fairly small segment of a generation survives and reproduces. If this is
the case, those functional and anatomic features that are making a difference
in the distinction between survival and death, will be accentuated and
perpetuated in an evolving species, while features that do not constitute an
advantage in the struggle for existence, fade-away from the
"gene-pool".
28 In species' that are under a
considerable pressure from the naturally selective force-fields, the gene-pool
is constantly modified, because a desperate search is under way for an improved
measure of viability. In a way, we can visualise this situation as a race
against the threat of extinction, because it is, obviously, a vulnerable
situation, if only a small segment of a generation is able to survive and
procreate. Either, a more successful genetic composition comes to the fore and
the rate of survival improves, or, the search for a more successful genetic
package of instruction fails, and the species becomes, indeed, extinct.
29 It may also happen, that a
specific population of a species becomes isolated and separated, and begins to
face markedly different circumstances compared to the "main-stream"
or the main population of a species. Then, it is likely, that we are going to
see two different species' emerge, because genetic compatibility is rapidly
lost whenever segments of the same gene-pool are developing into different
directions. Genetic compatibility would "dilute" the carefully
selected set of genetic characteristics that secure survival under a specific
set of circumstances, because genetic mixing would again introduce features
that are not suitable to the demands of this particular ecological niche.
30 The existence possibilities for
an individual, as well as the species as a whole, are constantly subjected to
pressures from the environment, and, the search for viability constitutes, in
essence, a blind trial and error to find the most useful and viable adaptation.
However, the reproduction of an organism is a "guided event", not
only, before birth, or, before hatching, but, thereafter as well. Mechanisms of
guidance or regulation play an important role in the maintenance of individual
and species viability during the entire period of existence.
31 Let us go back, for a moment, to
man himself, and, let us consider his capability to foresee, under certain
fortunate circumstances, the need for a special tool, which is an object with
special qualities or capabilities. Sometimes, man is able to create this tool from
a mental imagery in which he can visualise the characteristics or capabilities
of an instrument, before it has actually been made. It was logical, that early
man attributed a similar process of "mental fore-shadowing" in the
Mind of a Superior Intelligence in order to explain the riddle of existence.
This idea comes to the fore, for example, in the imagery of religious
explanations, where man has visualised the origins of his existence and his
natural surroundings as a Creative Act by God, Who foresaw in His Mind the
existence of man and his world, and then proceeded to create such a world
without the slightest hesitation or error.
32 When we take a closer look at
many of man's creations, we see, that they do, indeed, "evolve", in
contrast with the immediately perfect creations by God, as visualised in the
imagery of man's religious beliefs. Certainly, man can create artificially a
tool by the juxta-position of various parts or by deliberately shaping a
natural object. Nature could not produce such a tool with the random processes
of chance, because in most natural environments we are familiar with, the
random distribution of suitable events is too low to permit a reasonable chance
for such a juxta-position to occur.
33 Nevertheless, the design of a
tool by a human being "evolves", on many occasions, and, it is clear,
that the more complicated tools, such as an automobile or a computer, have a
long "history", or period of evolution, where, often, several teams
of designers, over a period of many years, or, even, several generations, have
made contributions to a particular tool or piece of machinery.
34 We see, then, how the phenomena
of evolutionary change and the worlds of guided or created events tend to
overlap each other, and, I feel, that it is worthwhile to pursue this imagery
further, because it has such an important influence on our grasp over the
concepts of evolution and creation.
.......
Chapter 3
Content
The bibilical concept of Creation.
Can something come from nothing?
The origin of God.
The appearance of randomness in the occurrence of numerous similar and
simultaneous events.
Scattering grains of sand.
The summarising functions of the mind, and the concept of randomness.
Randomness and Guidance.
A deliberate, creative act of the human will.
Behavioural flexibility, and the need to finely tune our behaviour-patterns.
A brief outline of awareness, consciousness, symbolic representation, and a
willed, intelligent, behavioural response.
The relativity of knowledge.
A number of questions.
An essential equivalence between the creative functions of human existence and
the forces of natural selection.
Neither one, nor the other, is perfectly random or completely guided.
The mechanisms of social inter-dependence.
1 If we look again at the
biblical concept of "Creation", we see, that this indicates, not
only, a completely guided event, crafted by a Conscious Intelligence, but, it
also implies a creation of something out of nothing. Actually, the bibilical
text may not state the latter assumption explicitly, and, it refers, primarily,
to a change from chaos into order, but I believe that we, indeed, assume, that
God has the power to create something out of nothing, and, we have to assume,
that the chaos existing before God began to create order, also existed because
of God.
2 I am not aware of any
theological doctrine stipulating that God, too, has to respect the Law of the
conservation of matter-energy, and, it seems to contradict the concept of an
omnipotent God to be bound by any sort of limitation. Yet, scientifically, this
principle of the conservation of matter-energy has become a fundamental
corner-stone in our grasp over reality.
3 Perhaps, it is fair to say, that
a superficial sense of logic makes us assume, that something can come from
nothing, because we assume that all existence has a cause. Yet, if we think
about it carefully, we come to the conclusion, that all existence has a
"cause", because there are endless possibilities to transform
matter-energy into different states of matter-energy, but, the conclusion, that
matter-energy comes from something else, e.g. from nothing, or, from God, does
not follow logically at all.
4 We are not at all sure, that there
must have been a "time", or a period of existence, before there was
energy-matter, because our extrapolations fall-short, and, we become
increasingly aware of the fact, that the perception of time and space, as well
as all conceptualisations of cause and effect, are dependent upon sophisticated
human thoughts, and, therefore, upon human existence; a rather specific and
short-lived dependence, indeed!
5 Let us say, simply, that, in a
human framework of reality perceptions, we assume, that matter-energy has
"always" existed, in one form or another, and, that we limit our
inquiry about the nature of all forms of matter-energy, including the living
organisation, to an analysis of matter-energy transformations, as well as a
synthesis of broad principles of operation describing the way human beings
perceive reality.
6 In a way, the theologian has
come to the same conclusion. While he readily admits the possibility, that God
can create in his all-powerful wisdom and love anything He choses to create,
the origin of God is left unanswered, or, it is categorically stated, that God
existed "before all Time and all Existence".
7 Let us now look at the concept
of creation as an event that is guided by the conscious intelligence of a human
being. Let us contrast the creative activities of human beings with the
concepts of chance and randomness, and, we will see, that it is possible to
reconcile these entrenched contradictions between the concepts of a
"deliberate creation" and those of "randomness", chance,
and a blind evolutionary search for a possibility to exist.
8 If we look at a specific event,
we see, that it is always guided by a specific set of conditions and
circumstances. The event, either, takes place, or, it does not take place,
depending on the circumstances, and, if the event is more complex and subject
to variations, we note, that the circumstances and conditions of the locale at
a particular moment, still determine completely each individual event or
sub-event.
9 Sometimes, we think, that an
event is not completely determined, and, we may come to the conclusion, that a
"random variability" is, indeed, possible, but, we can be sure, that,
the event is then, either, a large conglomerate of numerous smaller, more basic
and completely determined events, or, we do not know all the conditions,
factors or circumstances influencing this particular event.
10 Randomness is a human
abstraction, and, it is, in essence, a conceptual tool with which we grasp the
overall aspects of very complex phenomena. We are unable to see, detect,
measure or weigh all the individual events and their circumstances of
occurrence. For example, if I throw a handful of sand on the floor, the grains
of sand will scatter in an apparently random fashion over the floor. However,
we know, that, in many instances we can make a number of accurate predictions
about the outcome of such a random event. These predictions are grasped in the
concepts of a predictable random distribution, or "scatter", and
these predictions are quite successfully quantitated and manipulated,
mathematically.
11 We should not forget, that this
apparently single event of dropping a handful of sand on the floor, is, in
essence, a very large series of separate events. Each grain of sand describes a
trajectory that is completely determined by its own momentum and mass, its
collisions with neighbouring grains of sand and the floor, as well as other
factors, such as angle of impact, elasticity, obstacles and irregularities in
the shape, size and surface of the grains of sand or the particles of the floor
with which it has come into contact.
12 Obviously, the calculation of
all these factors, and, even, the qualitative description of the path of each
grain of sand is beyond our powers. At the same time, we note, that such an
effort is unnecessary, because the summarising concepts of randomness and
scatter are far more useful to work with.
13 While randomness as a
summarising concept disappears from the scene of detailed and focussed reality
perceptions, we should not forget, that all conceptualisations of operative
factors, conditions, influences and circumstances, are concepts, and, we know,
now, that these concepts are based upon recognised classes of events, which are
in themselves summaries of a much larger series of sense-impressions.
14 In a sense, therefore, our
concepts about "guiding conditions", are not any more
"real" than the summarising concepts of scatter or random
distribution, but, it is useful to keep in mind, that, randomness is a summary
of a large number of events with a specific set of guiding and determining
circumstances. It is therefore valid to conclude, that the reality of
randomness depends on the reality of a summarised or integrated series of
numerous similar but not identical sub-events, which we can not delineate or
discern with a significant degree of clarity, precision or meaning.
15 We see, then, how the randomness
of fluctuating conditions, especially, in living systems, is, on many
occasions, controled and changed into a relatively stable and suitable
environment by mechanisms that "create" these specific and suitable
circumstances. If this event is such a complicated process as the development
of a mammalian embryo, we see, indeed, how these suitable circumstances have to
be created with a great deal of care and consistency. The reproduction of an
organism is therefore taken-out of the random circumstances of
chance-happenings, because the chances for the continuity of living existence
would be infinitessimally small, if it was left to these random circumstances
of chance to reproduce the circumstances that would allow a living organism to
be formed again.
16 Yet, the mechanisms of
randomness do not disappear totally in the reproduction of complex living
systems, as we see in the scattering of seeds, the somewhat random process of
mating, as well as the random movements of sperm during the fertilisation of an
egg-cell. The main point, here, is the fact, that the circumstances or
conditions are deliberately guided by the genetic code of the parents, as well
as the off-spring, in order to provide a milieu that is favourable for
reproduction and secures, thereby, the continuity of a species.
17 The guidance of events by
genetic mechanisms has a strong existential meaning, because it is the
corner-stone of species viability. On close scrutiny it becomes obvious, that
the seemingly arbitrary and choice-like processes of a deliberate
"creation", or selective act of our "will", is not so far
removed from the same mechanisms as we described above. We will see, that our
creative activities and the deliberate choice of our "free will" show
many characteristics that resemble the random processes of chance, or, the
blind search for possibilities of existence.
18 Before we can define an act of our
"will" as a deliberate creation of our conscious intelligence, we
have to define, to some extent, what we mean by "conscious
awareness", and, what the role is of our intelligence and "free
will". We have traced, on various occasions, the faculty of conscious
awareness to the ability of re-stimulating memory-traces by mimicry, stylised
or stream-lined gestures, and, later, by arbitrary sound-symbols or written
signs. In non-verbalising animals, re-stimulation of awarenesses and
memory-traces can only occur through the reception of an analogous reality
experience, but, in the human being, the faculty of symbolic representation
allows a memory-trace to be recalled with the help of representative symbols.
19 This leads, quickly, to a large
vocabulary of symbolic representations that require classification. In order to
systematise the many symbolically representable awarenesses, we form
abstractions, as well as a variety of syntactic devices, which let us
manipulate a great variety of ideas and concepts with skill and ease.
20 We have discussed the reasons,
why this trend was such a momentous break-through for the behaviourally
flexible anthropoids, and, we know, how the development of conscious
awarenesses led to a more or less systematised structure of beliefs, with a
great deal of influence upon our behavioural choices. Mankind has developed
behavioural flexibility to its limits in comparison with other living species',
and, the development of belief structures has added another dimension to our
repertoir of behavioural choices.
21 The behaviourally flexible
species' developed the ability to finely tune their behaviour according to
rapidly varying circumstances. This enhances their chances to find food,
shelter and a mate, especially, when the environmental circumstances vary a
great deal, but, this element of behavioural flexibility also places a much
greater burden on the faculties of memory and recognition, because the members
of such a flexible species have to distinguish between a large number of beneficial
and harmful signals arising from the environment.
22 The responses of these flexible
species' become less and less stereotyped, as they become individualised and
adapted to specific circumstances. We observe in other people, and, we
experience, clearly, in ourselves, the need to come, on many occasions, to a
deliberate, well thought-out response. Certainly, the greatest part of our
responses are automatic and routine, but, there is always a problem in our mind
that requires a deliberate and willed response. If we have a well-developed
ability to come to an appropriate behavioural choice, we call this behaviour
"intelligent", and, it is clear, that intelligence depends on an
accurate and broad grasp of the realities around and within us.
23 This, in a nutshell, gives us a
background for the concepts of awareness, consciousness, symbolic
representation and a willed, intelligent behavioural choice, based upon the
faculties of behavioural flexibility. We have outlined each of these ideas more
in detail before, and, we have also emphasised the fact, that, all these mental
images developed as a result of our conscious awarenesses and powers of
abstraction.
24 However, these images are mental
images only, which help us in our relationships with the natural and social
environment, but, they have nothing to do with, and can not be related in any
way to, an absolute or extra-human reality. We have argued, before, that we can
only know human realities, in the sense, that, all knowledge is conceptual in
nature, and, because we do not know absolute reality, we are also prevented
from claiming any degree of resemblance between our conceptual imagery and a
hypothetical "absolute reality".
25 We have defined consciousness,
as well as the ability to make a conscious, deliberate and, sometimes,
arbitrary behavioural decision, as a biological development that was encouraged
for one reason only; the enhancement of viability. Indeed, if we analyse acts
of intelligent behaviour, we see, that the over-riding common denominator in
all intelligent and creative behavioural acts, is the fact, that these
behaviour-patterns benefit the individual.
26 These behavioural acts protect
me as a member of a flexible species, or they make me stronger. Intelligent
behaviour may make me more acceptable in the eyes of the other members in
society, or, in my own eyes. In short, intelligent behaviour is the crown of
our behavioural fine-tuning, and, it is also the crown of our evolutionary
development.
27 The purpose of all behaviour is to
adapt an organism to the circumstances in such a way, that the results are
beneficial to this organism, and, in case of a socially integrated being, the
behaviour-patterns must also be beneficial to the members of the immediate
social environment. Intelligent behaviour, including the entire realm of
conscious awareness, has, therefore, an existential meaning, and, as a result
of the development of manipulative mastery, we see, that intelligent behaviour
means, at least, for man, also, the manipulation of circumstances and reality
perceptions.
28 We have seen, that, the primary function of the genetic code is to ensure favourable circumstancs for the continued existence of an organism, and to secure the continuation of the gene-pool by guiding, regulating and "creating" circumstances that are suitable for the development of the next generation. In the behaviourally flexible species', the detailed instructions for finely tuned behaviour are taken-away from the genetic code, and, they are "given" to the flexible, behavioural choice of an individual organism. This transfers, at least, in part, the responsibility of viability to the conscious behavioural choices of an individual or a small community.
29 Is it, therefore, strange to
come to the conclusion, that this spectrum of consciously willed
behaviour-patterns and deliberate decision-making, complements the functions of
the genetic code? Is it strange to consider the genetic code, as well as the
cultural code of intelligent and conscious behaviour, as tools with which we
maintain the conditions and circumstances of viability? Is it surprising to
see, that, even, the deliberate and specific act of our conscious will is
guided by sense-impressions and their interpretations, and, is it strange to
note, that, our consciously willed acts of creation present, (seen over a
prolonged period of time), the same searching quality for enhanced performance
and increased viability as the mechanisms of the blind evolutionary search? It
is quite logical to emphasise the search for viability in every intelligent and
creative act of freely willed behaviour, as well as in the genetic encoding of
those events that ensure viability through the creation of favourable
conditions for existence.
30 It will remain difficult for our
sense of intuition to accept an essential equivalent between the creative
functions of human intelligence, on the one hand, and, the apparently blind and
ruthless forces of natural selection, on the other. We certainly do not want to
imply the existence of an identity or an exact equivalent, but, it seems
worthwhile to loosen ourselves from the traditional perception, that the forces
of natural evolution and those of creative intelligence, represent an
irreconcilable anti-thesis. Let us acknowledge, that the forces of natural
evolution contain a very important element of guided development, and, that the
creativity of man shows a great deal of searching and probing. Neither one, nor
the other, is perfectly random, nor completely guided.
31 Let us leave this interesting
field, because we have a lot to discuss about human relationships, as well as
the various dependencies and inter-dependencies that present themselves in a
kaleidoscopic fashion, whenever we care to think about these matters systematically.
If we start to talk about relationships between people, we add another
dimension to the complexity of the systems under consideration. In stead of
considering only the existential requirements of one individual, we have to
take into account the conflicting, as well as the harmonising interests, of a
group of people forming a social unit.
32 We have discussed, before, that
the mechanisms of secondary social integration of complex multi-cellular
life-forms took place well before the origin of the human species. After all,
some form of socialisation is wide-spread throughout the spectrum of mammalian
life, and, there is, to some extent, also some sort of socialisation in the
behaviour of the precisely instructed insect. Social developments, or, at
least, the beginnings of social bonding, originated, therefore, well before the
development of speech and symbolic communications, but, the larger social units
of the human species are so unique, and, they are so unlike anything else in
nature, that we may consider them to depend, almost completely, on the
faculties of intelligence and the deliberate, voluntary choice, rather than on
the instructions of a genetic code.
33 The possibilities for a viable,
large-scale human society are solidly based on the capabilities natural
selection has evolved during its long evolutionary search for viable
mechanisms, but, it is clear, that the complexities and specialised features of
large social groupings are dependent on the capabilities of behavioural
flexibility, the voluntary choice, as well as the formation of sophisticated
concepts and culturally encoded guidance-patterns.
.......
Chapter 4
Content
Building upon the concept of a "biological heritage".
The anthropoid species'.
A need for excellent parental behaviour.
Trying to rear children "by the book".
Emotional mechanisms between parents and off-spring.
The ability to give and receive trust.
Unraveling the mechanisms of a developing personality.
A continuously varying mix between protection, affection, stimulation and
discipline.
Mechanisms playing a role during an increase in population density.
The internal "frictions" of competitive strife.
A static population, and its internal dynamics.
Intra-species predation.
The stampede into a leaderless panic.
The mass-migration.
Limitations of the nomadic way of life.
Rising competitive pressures and tensions.
The inhibition of intra-species predation by "recognition
mechanisms".
When recognition mechanisms fail to operate adequately.
The mechanisms of "cultural divergence" between human groupings
interfere with natural recognition mechanisms.
In a cultural sense, we have become differentiated into widely divergent
"species`".
Man has shaken-off his natural predators, except for a few, stubborn, pathogenic
micro-organisms.
The background of the contradictory trends in man's personality.
Why human beings are willing to explore the possibilities of cooperation and
social integration.
The break-through of the "hierarchical order".
1 Let us build upon the concept
and imagery of a "biological heritage", because we have, so far, paid
little attention to the influence of the genetic code upon the human
personality. Our early ancestors led a precarious existence at the edge of the
great forests. These forests were retreating in many areas, giving-way to a
landscape where clusters of trees alternated with grassy plains.
2 The open areas were the domain
of the large and powerful mammals, and, deeper into the forests lived many
species' that were better adapted to life in the trees. The anthropoids had
already begun to run from one cluster of trees to the next, and their legs and
feet had become adapted to locomotion on the ground rather than holding-on to
branches. These animals were cautiously scooting from one tree to the next,
while their hands, freed from the constant need to swing from branch to branch,
could be used to pick-up a stick, a stone or a bone.
3 All flexible animals developed
the need to become good parents, because many mammalian species' required a
long learning period. Often, their central nervous system was not even fully
developed, as yet, at the time of birth, because the off-spring had to pass
through a narrow birth-canal, and, it was important that the head was not too
large at the time of birth. Mammalian, and especially, anthropoid youngsters
were, therefore, vulnerable creatures, especially, because they needed, also, a
long learning period after birth, before reaching maturity and full viability.
4 The emphasis on learning from experience
and parental example created the need for a prolonged childhood and
adolescence. In the human species, this period has become as long as fifteen
years, or more. This made it imperative, that the parental generations became
good protectors and educators, because the viability of the species began to
depend on the capabilities of behavioural flexibility and good parental
example.
5 We are talking, here, about
developments that took place well before the origin of conscious awareness,
and, the traits of good parental behaviour became genetically encoded. The
anthropoids show, indeed, strong emotive and instinctive behaviour-patterns
promoting a sheltered environment for their infants and youngsters.
6 The human species is heir to
this anthropoid background, and, the same long maturation period and prolonged
need for protection plays a role in the behaviour of human parents. If people
have been spared the confusing influence of an ignorant and erroneous cultural
heritage, we see, that a mother is naturally loyal, protective and affectionate
towards her off-spring, and, that the father is protective and responsible
towards mother and child. These trends do not have to be "learned" in
the form of conscious beliefs. On the contrary, we are usually confusing our
natural emotional and instinctive trends, whenever we try to rear and educate
our children "by the book", because our conscious, psychological
insights are still fragmentary, and, often, in error.
7 The kinship bonds between the
members of a family arose, primarily, because of the vulnerability of the
anthropoid infant and its need for a long maturation period. We see, indeed,
that the infant starts life in a state of complete dependence upon its
environment. At the same time, parents experience satisfying emotions when
caring for a helpless infant. These mechanisms are still operating in
essentially the same manner, because the helpless infant and the trusting child
release a powerful protective instinct in the parents and guardians of human infants.
8 Under normal conditions, the
blind attitudes of trust, shown by infants and youngsters, become gradually
more selective, as the child learns not to trust everyone and everything.
However, by and large, the healthy, happy and normal child remains trustful of
its parents or protectors, as well as of those with whom it has forged bonds of
friendship. This ability to give and receive trust forms an essential element
in the ability to form meaningful relationships with other people, as we see in
the tensions, loneliness and socially abnormal behaviour-patterns of those,
whose bonds of trust have been scorched by painful experiences and bitter
disappointments, leading to an equally blind and undifferentiated mistrust or
hatred for the outside world.
9 We know, now, something about
the mechanisms that lie behind a stunted personality and defective bonds of
inter-dependence. We are dealing, here, with circumstances and experiences that
have, somehow, been deeply traumatic for a growing child. It is not clear,
however, why seemingly trivial experiences can sometimes have such a profound
effect upon the development of a personality, and, why others can take the same
experiences in stride. This points to the fact, that we still have no reliable
method to measure the subjective intensity of an experience, nor, do we know,
to what extent one experience predisposes to a specific bias in the
interpretation of subsequent experiences; neither, do we know, to what extent
genetic influences play a role in the make-up of a personality.
10 We do know, that the spectrum of
personality development is extremely varied, in particular, if the cultural
code is tolerant or lax. We also know, that it is often difficult to predict
the development of a personality, and, we know, that the accentuation of
certain attitudes and beliefs may take place, quite suddenly, without a clear
understanding of the chain of events that led to a particular development.
11 However, our ignorance and lack
of predictability are due to the fact, that we are not sufficiently aware of
all the factors that play a role in the development of a personality. There is
no reason to believe, that we will always remain ignorant about these matters.
Once we have clear-cut criteria, how to measure and chart the development of a
personality, we should not have too many difficulties predicting the
capabilities and overall psychological profile of a particular human being. It
would be wise, however, to remind ourselves, that it is always possible for
seemingly insignificant and haphazard happenings to play a crucial role in the
development of a personality.
12 We see the same difficulties in
nature, where we can visualise, dimly, a series of conditions and circumstances
guiding a complex event, but, in essence, these conditions and circumstances
are still beyond our grasp and prediction. As a result, we are rarely able to
have a clear image of all the factors involved in a particular event, and, we
know even less about the importance of the various factors in relation to each
other.
13 The bonds between parents and
off-spring change continuously. From a total dependence as an infant, the child
learns, gradually, to become more independent, and, wise parents neither regret
nor impede this development. There is a continuously varying mix between
protection, affection, stimulation and discipline, and, upon reaching early
maturity, wise parents hope, that the child or adolescent will have grown into
a personality that is not only capable of forming friendly and trustful
relationships, but, that it has also developed a healthy dose of parental
instincts, so that it can provide the same quality of guidance and protection
to its own off-spring.
14 All anthropoids, including early
man, lived in small groups in which kinship relationships played a dominant
role, but, the bonds of kinship and friendship began to cover a much wider
range of activities than the up-bringing of youngsters. Experience taught the
living organisms of natural evolution, time and again, that cooperation may be
an extremely successful way to enhance viability, but, we see, also, that this
method of increasing viability with the help of consciously chosen patterns of
cooperation, has profound consequences for the behavioural repertoir of the
members, who are poised to participate in a socially integrated unit.
15 Let us first go back to the
basic principles of competitive existence, as well as the solutions of
predation, parasitism and symbiosis. Whenever natural evolution produces a
successful organism, the number of organisms quickly increases, until an
equilibrium sets in. The rapid growth of a population produces, quickly,
counter-pressures, until a balance is reached between the factors and
conditions that sustain a certain rate of growth, and, other factors, leading
to the death of an equal number of organisms. The population, then, remains
"static", or in balance with its natural surroundings.
16 The factors that promote growth
of a population of living organisms, are the availability of food, energy and
building materials, together with a suitable range of environmental conditions,
while factors that tend to inhibit growth are harsh environmental conditions,
making life nearly impossible for the older and weaker members. These are the
less efficient organisms of a population, and, they have more difficulties than
the younger and more vigorous organisms to obtain their food and utilise the
available energy-supplies. These existential pressures may be aggravated by the
factor of predation, whenever there is another species that feeds upon this
population. Finally, there is the important factor of the accumulation of
harmful and poisonous waste-products, either in the natural surroundings or
within the body of a living organism, because these waste-products make living
conditions more difficult.
17 If a number of organisms have to
compete for the available energy- or food-supply, a part of the energy to
sustain life and integrity is used-up by this competitive struggle, and, this
"internal friction" between the members of a dense population
represents a burden, as well as an increase in the level of "maintenance
energy". This conditions characterises the state of "competitive
inhibition".
18 If nature has produced an
extra-ordinarily successful species, we talk about a "break-through".
The population density and the geographical spread of the organism may become
gigantic, and, in many areas, the competition for food may become so fierce,
that a sudden collapse occurs of the environment, greatly reducing the density
of the population it can sustain. The size of the population is, then,
"adapted" to the available food-supply, leading, once more, to an
equilibrium.
19 The debris of dead organisms, as
well as the weak and dying members, become tempting sources of energy, inviting
the processes of scavenging, parasitism and predation. Scavenging is the
utilisation of organic materials from deceased members. The parasite saps the
energies of a still living "host", and the predator kills another
organism in order to feed on its body.
20 There is also a process of
"intra-species predation", where the intense population pressures
lead to a level of friction and competitive strife, where the only solution is
a "combat to the death". "Man" is a prime example of
intra-species predation, in spite of the fact, that man rarely
"eats", literally, those he kills of his own species. Yet, the
permanent elimination of a competitor is, frequently, the most important
solution to an intense conflict of competitive strife.
21 There are other, less common
solutions to the threat of over-crowding, such as a stampede into a
mass-suicide, which is, probably, the result of a leaderless panic, and, there
is the solution of the mass-migration in a search for new feeding grounds. After
man spread over the entire inhabitable world, the process of migration became
much more difficult, because a migrating group or tribe would then start to
encroach upon the territories of another group or tribe, whenever it was
looking for new hunting grounds.
22 Besides, the nomadic way of life
became impractical for the more densely populated areas, because the
cultivation of plants and animals became the foundation for a reliable,
enlarged and sustainable food-supply, requiring a settled existence.
23 However, this process of
increasingly sophisticated techniques to sustain life also brought-about a
gradual enlargement of the social unit, but this has never been an easy
process. It will probably never be considered an easy or natural way to live together
at close quarters, and in large numbers, because we have no natural affinity to
live in such densely populated clusters.
24 Our biological heritage prepared
us quite well for a nomadic existence in small groups, where the attitudes of
parental concern and kinship relations provided the basis for flexible and
temporary patterns of cooperation. These attitudes were rewarded with
viability, because they brought the larger animals of the plains within reach
as a source of food, and, at the same time, mastery over these large animals
provided an extra measure of security and dominance over the environment.
25 For millions of years, man lived
in such small, nomadic groups and learned to follow the declining herds of the
larger animals. Eventually, the point was reached, where numerous small,
nomadic groupings came continuously in conflict with each other, competing for
the same food-supplies, and, we can visualise, how the qualities of courage,
ferocity and weapon handling, which had already been accentuated by man's
increasing mastery over the larger mammals, became now directed against other
human beings during ever fiercer clashes of competitive strife.
26 Man never really reached a stage
of "competitive inhibition", because its population continued to
grow, slowly, but steadily. This was due to a steadily increasing mastery over
the environment. Many of man's "near-cousins", who were also on the
road towards conscious awareness, became a casualty of these rising tensions of
competitive strife, and they became extinct. This was not a sudden event.
Rather, the increase in competitive strife was a slow build-up of tensions and
ran parallel, be it in inverse proportions, to the slowly declining
availability of food and inhabitable space. A number of anthropoid species'
became extinct; others were driven back again, deeper into the jungle, and, it
is indeed remarkable, that, only one single species made the transition to
conceptualised awarenesses and symbolic communications. At least, we have no
evidence that other anthropoids made this step, fully, before they lost-out in
the competitive struggle with man.
27 It is, indeed, difficult to be
certain, when man made this step towards conscious awareness or symbolic
representation. If we take as the criterium a rather fully developed speech and
culture, modern man is, indeed, the only species to have reached
"manhood", but, it is likely, that many close relatives to man
developed the ability to recall memory-traces by symbolic representations, and,
it is likely, that they also developed a rudimentary repertoir of conscious
awarenesses and symbolic representations, without reaching the virtuosity of
language communications or full, symbolic speech.
28 The development of symbolic
mastery, culturally determined behaviour-patterns, together with the conscious
manipulation of belief structures, is, probably, responsible, at least, in
part, for the remarkable level of inter-necine warfare that developed between
the members of the species of mankind. We keep emphasising the fact, that
mankind remained a single species. At least, we see, that all human beings on
earth are still genetically compatible, and, this is the crucial biological
criterium for considering mankind a single species, in spite of the fact, that,
many regional differences in habitat have given rise to specific racial
characteristics.
29 It is rare for a sophisticated
and large multi-cellular species to kill its own kind as a solution to the
tensions of competitive strife. Yet, the human species has adopted this
technique with "great success", and, it still practices this solution
with undiminished vigor and enthousiasm, in spite of the indescribable
suffering such practices are causing. Why is this?
30 The occurrence of internal or
intra-species predation is, in essence, self-defeating, because it negates the
efforts of reproduction, and, it poses an additional burden upon the ability of
the species to survive. It is, therefore, a "luxury" that only an
abundantly populated species can afford. Almost all species' are in some sort
of a fluctuating balance with their surroundings, and, under these conditions,
nature has provided rather strong inhibitions against internal predation. Yet,
on occasion, this inhibition falls-away, especially, when "recognition
mechanisms" fail. For example, we know, that a wounded or strangely acting
member of a species may suddenly become "prey", and, it will then be
killed by members of its own species.
31 However, no other species in the
large, complex and behaviourally flexible animals has made a break-through on
the scale of man, and, we see, rarely, such an intense and sustained level of
competition between members of the same species, as we see in the species of
mankind. It seems logical to assume, that man has also been endowed with
inhibiting behavioural mechanisms that prevent man from killing and devouring
his own kind, in particular, since man seems to have been adequately endowed
with the instincts of parental care and concern.
32 Is it possible, that "natural
recognition mechanisms", responsible for triggering this inhibitory
behaviour, have been obscured by the marked divergence in behaviour between
human beings? Could it be, that the phenomenon of "cultural
diversity" obliterated or overshadowed these natural inhibitory instincts?
Could this be the reason, why people have a tendency to kill each other in a
dispute?
33 Indeed, it is possible that
cultural divergencies and a wide-ranging spectrum of beliefs, attitudes and
reality perceptions that occurred with the break-through of conceptualised
awareness, are, at least, partly responsible for the fact, that man has such
great difficulties in recognising another human being as a member of the same
species. It is likely, that the many thousands of years of continuous
inter-necine combat has engrained in us the awareness, that our most formidable
and feared enemy is, now, another human being!
34 We have conquered our natural
predators, but, in the process, we have become predators for each other. In a
cultural sense, we have become differentiated into many widely divergent
"cultural species`". These species' hardly ever,
"recognise" each other as human beings with similar needs and
aspirations, and, they show, often, the same tendency to prey upon one another,
just as the species' of nature.
35 Are there other solutions than
competitive inhibition and inter-necine warfare, when dealing with a sustained
and intense level of competitive strife between the social units of mankind?
One of the solutions has been the forging of much greater social units, but, we
see, that this "solution" has, often, been very difficult and rather
tentative.
36 In many ways, natural evolution
seems to have lost its surefootedness and methodical approach, when trying to
solve the problems of human viability. It seems, as if nature has become
somewhat confused. In a way, this is indeed the case, because nature had
already selected, with the behaviourally flexible forms of life, a mode of
genetic encoding, where the responsibilities for both individual and species
viability, were partially removed from the genetic code and placed into the
hands of individual and communal behaviour. The ability to finely-tune a
response with intelligent and alert behaviour became the main avenue for survival
of the behaviourally flexible species`.
37 Through the mechanisms of
natural selection, nature provided the necessary instinctive and emotive traits
to make man a successful nomadic hunter, grouped-together into small, flexible
social units of relatives. However, the success of this pattern of evolutionary
development, coupled with the fortuitous break-through of conceptual and
manipulative mastery, "surprised", even, the forces of evolution and
left it with the problem of an essentially unbalanced species; at least, it is
virtually unbalanced, because it has shaken-off its natural predators, (except
a few, stubborn pathogenic micro-organisms), and, this species has learned to
manipulate natural conditions in such a way, that it is able to extract resources
and pollute the environment at an ever faster rate.
38 Man's manipulative dexterity,
coupled with the destructiveness of his weaponry, has increased so rapidly,
that the forces of natural selection have not been able to encode a successful
pattern of conduct for behaviour within a much larger social framework.
Actually, it is on theoretical grounds highly unlikely, that such a process of
encoding could have taken place, even, if the experimental scale and time-frame
would have been large enough to make this possible. The success of the larger
social organisation can not depend, anymore, on an instinctive biological
heritage of genetic endowments, but, it has to depend upon a consciously
constructed, or "created", and executed set of conceptual guidelines,
which understands, clearly and precisely, the nature of the contradictory
trends in man's personality.
39 The evolution of a large-scale
social unit is one particular solution to the continued escalation of
competitive strife between small social units, but, we have seen, that this
solution is difficult, and results, often, in additional tensions and feelings
of injustice, because we lack a "natural affinity", or a biologically
encoded pattern of behaviour, for living peacefully in a large social organisation.
We should not be surprised, then, to see, that man has never abandoned the more
primitive solution of settling a conflict of interests with the methods of
violent combat; a struggle to the death, where the winner takes all and the
loser is permanently eliminated. We should not be surprised to experience, that
this solution of combat has a strong instinctive appeal. In our healthy vigor,
we love to settle a conflict with force, and, only slowly, are we becoming
aware, how disastrous the consequences of such attitudes can be, especially, if
we have been weakened and are at the receiving end of a "solution by
violent conflict".
40 Let us go back to an analysis of
the basic reasons, why human beings could be enticed to attempt a solution of
the tensions of competitive strife with the attitudes and practices of
cooperation and integration. This avenue goes so strongly against the primitive
lure to use force, whenever possible, that it must have powerful advantages,
indeed, to seek a solution in cooperation and compromise.
41 The earliest attempts to
integrate a number of small, nomadic groupings into a larger society must have
relied upon this remarkable mechanism of "hierarchical ordening",
which is the basis for the existence of the small grouping. We should review,
here, briefly this aspect of our "biological heritage", because
nature made it possible for some members of a single species to come together
by the compromise of "hierarchical ordening". The hierarchical order
became an important key in the search for an alternative mechanism to the
solution of an all-out struggle to the death. As a matter of fact, hierarchical
ordening became the corner-stone of the solution of "social
integration".
.......
Chapter 5
Content
The phenomena of "dispersion" and "territoriality".
Territoriality may be a temporary attitude.
The tendency towards an equi-distant dispersion and territoriality can be
mitigated by the mechanisms of hierarchical ordening.
The need for "escape mechanisms".
The transition from dominance to leadership.
Social integration around the family nucleus.
Dominance, and the evolution of caring and protective instincts.
A balance of interests.
The "sense of justice".
Occupying a position on the basis of individual merit.
The "position at birth".
Inherited social positions, and the sense of justice.
Hierarchical stratification is based on an essential fluidity of the
hierarchical position, based on the quality of personal abilities.
The polarisation between a ruling elite and an oppressed majority.
A complex mosaic of groupings and sub-groupings.
The limitations of natural leadership.
Favouritism, and its disruptive effects on social harmony.
1 We have seen, that a successful
life-form reaches, quickly, a maximum population density for the environment in
which it exists, and, in order to diminish the tensions of competitive strife,
it is natural for identical life-forms to fan-out over as large a territory as
possible. This phenomenon of "dispersion" is already visible in non-living
forms of existence, e.g., when a locally concentrated substance in a fluid
medium "diffuses" into the surrounding environment.
2 The tendency to diffuse or
disperse may be even more pronounced, if there is an active element of mutual
repulsion, such as the dispersion of a cloud of negatively charged electrons.
Life-forms behave in the same way, and, many of the more complex multi-cellular
animals develop a behaviour-pattern that lets the individual organisms
spread-out and claim or defend a certain "territory".
3 In birds, the behaviour of
"territoriality" is often temporary. It is, primarily, a phenomenon
of the nesting period, because during migration, birds need to group together in
search of suitable feeding grounds and easier climatic conditions. In all
social animals, including man, the instinct of territoriality has become
somewhat subdued, but, it is still there, and, we still need a certain distance
between each other, in spite of the fact that we do not always claim,
individually, a certain territory to sustain our existential needs. Actually,
we still claim a certain space to live in, e.g., when we look for a place to
live in privacy, and, collectively, we are strongly territorial, as we can see
in the behaviour of national entities and their inclination to conquer other
territories.
4 The point is, that, the
mechanisms of secondary socialisation could only take place, when the tendency
to equi-distant dispersion and to fight territorial intruders was softened,
somewhat, by the ability to submit to the dominance of a stronger individual,
and gain his protection in return for having submitted one's territory to him.
This is the essence of the process of hierarchical ordening.
5 The process of hierarchical
ordening allows close contact, as well as an increased density of life-forms on
a fertile territory, and, it is, at the same time, a very useful adaptation to
mounting population pressures. The hierarchical order is still established by a
sort of contest, but, it is not a contest to the death, and the loser is not
driven-away from the territory as long as he or she accepts the dominance of
the stronger party.
6 If hierarchical relationships
are not clear, there will be a contest to clarify these relationships, and,
therefore, a certain "pecking order" develops in most flocks or
herds, even, if it is not always clear to an observer in what way the order of
dominance has been established.
7 The transition from a
territorial contest, where the loser is driven-off, to a hierarchical ordening,
where everybody "knows his place", opens-up great possibilities for
the mechanisms of cooperation between life-forms that are, essentially,
antagonistic or hostile towards each other. It is the first differentiation in
function between essentially identical members of a species, and, the
mechanisms of hierarchical ordening or stratification have become the
foundation for a viable and useful social organisation of large, behaviourally
flexible organisms.
8 Certainly, if the dominated
members are ruthlessly exploited, the benefits for those who have submitted
themselves, will disappear, and, the exploited members will then break-away
from the hierarchical or social order, as soon as there is a chance to do so.
If the dominating individual is getting weaker, there will immediately be a
challenge to the "leader", and, we see, therefore, how the strongest
individuals occupy, automatically, the highest hierarchical positions, while the
dominated individuals behave in accordance with the wishes and demands of those
who can dominate them, while enjoying the protection of the stronger members,
whenever there are external threats and attacks.
9 You may want to ask me, how a
position of dominance was transformed into the functions of leadership. This is
obviously a gigantic step in the evolution of behaviour, at least, in our
concepts about these matters, because, in the concept of dominance we still see
a purely egocentric orientation of the dominant personalities, while in the
concept of leadership, we imply an important change in this orientation. In the
function of leadership, the concerns of the dominant individual do not remain
entirely egocentric, but, they begin to encompass, increasingly, the interests
and well-being of the entire group.
10 How did such a change in
attitude come-about? The answer to this question has to remain somewhat
tentative, but, it is important to form, at least, a few ideas about this
monumental change in behavioural orientation, and, we should spend, therefore,
some time discussing a plausible transformation of the dominant personality
into a benevolent leadership behaviour. Perhaps, we can sketch the background
of behaviour-patterns that made this transformation, not only, plausible, but
logical.
11 Let us begin by questioning some
of our assumptions. The concept that dominance in a hierarchical order was
initially completely egocentric may not be entirely correct, because natural
selection may have helped to shape the characteristics of natural leadership,
already, before the emergence of the small social unit. Probably, the origins
of leadership qualities go back to the behaviour of parental care and concern,
because we see, that the mechanisms of secondary socialisation go hand in hand
with the development of parental care and concern for their vulnerable
offspring.
12 As we discussed before, it seems
reasonable to assume, that socialisation developed around the family nucleus,
and, it is likely, that adult members "failed" to develop fully their
territorial instincts and did not separate completely from their parents. It is
not difficult to imagine, how a group of related adults would have a tendency
to stick together, because they retained some of the natural dependencies
between parental generations and their off-spring.
13 The hierarchical ordening
between members of the same generation is, most likely, based on a combination
of physical strength and personality characteristics, and, perhaps, on the
hierarchical position of the parents. There is some evidence to believe, that
anthropoid youngsters and adolescents, coming from "lowly placed"
parents, tend to occupy lower positions compared to the off-spring from more
highly placed parents.
14 Whatever the exact mechanisms
are, it seems logical to see hierarchical positioning develop as a natural
extention of the family unit, where the distinctions in the positions of
authority are based, primarily, upon relationships between parents and
off-spring. The ability to extend the sphere of concern to those who
acknowledge superiority in the hierarchical order, is, after all, a logical
extention of the instincts of parental care. We have seen, that nature
sharpened an instinct of care and concern for the helpless infant, and,
perhaps, the submission to a hierarchically superior power, excercises
essentially the same appeal to instincts of parental care and concern, because
the submissive individual assumes, in essence, a position of helplessness and
defenselessness.
15 It becomes logical, then, that
the most dominant members of a group receive the strongest stimulation of their
caring and protective instincts. Besides, the instinct of territoriality is
also strongly developed in these dominant individuals, but, the territory now
includes the territory of the entire group, comprising, perhaps, a dozen or so
individuals.
16 Indeed, the defense of the
territory against intruders and predators is the main task of the dominant
personalities, and, in return for this "service", they assume,
automatically, a position of privilege and power. If a strong individual does
not perform well in his tasks of leadership, or, as a "parent" for
the whole group, he or she jeopardises the viability of this group, and, we have
discussed how the long period of nomadic existence in small groupings provided
an opportunity for natural selection to sharpen, in the dominant personalities,
the most valuable and viable traits of behaviour for such a position of
dominance.
17 These behavioural traits are,
courage, aggressiveness, and, even, ferocity in the defense of a territory and
its dependents, as well as intelligent leadership in the search for shelter and
food. These traits are the same as good parental behaviour. In essence,
parental attitudes have been extended towards the group as a whole, and, this
means, an attitude of care and concern for the submissive and cooperative
members of the group, the ability, and willingness, to squash devastating
fights and weakening quarrels amongst the membership, as well as the ability to
inspire the small community to an attitude of cooperation, hard work and a
sense of confidence and well-being during the daily struggle for survival.
18 Perhaps, we are somewhat freely
attributing psychological awarenesses to the development of natural leadership,
which were not really present, but, I sense, here, remarkable possibilities for
a coherent explanation. It seems fruitful to interpret the forces that maintain
a healthy grouping of socially integrated animals, as a balance between the
interests of individual members and those of the group as a whole. I am
convinced, that it is correct to interpret these mechanisms as the basis for
the evolution of this all-important, if subconscious, "sense of justice".
19 Indeed, what is the sense of
justice? In its verbalised form, it is obviously limited to sophisticated
conscious awarenesses, but, as a "behavioural organiser", as a
powerful emotive and instinctive force, we see the sense of justice emerge,
long before we can see any evidence for the development of conscious or
conceptual awarenesses. In essence, the sense of justice is closely related to,
and an immediate result of, the phenomenon of hierarchical ordening.
20 We have seen, that hierarchical
positioning, or ordening, is based upon the recognition, that the other members
of the group can be divided into those who dominate, and those who can be
dominated. Each member is therefore assigned a position on a hierarchical
scale, and, the position we occupy, as a member in this hierarchical order, has
been tested and tried-out.
21 Circumstances change
continuously. If we become stronger when growing-up, we may challenge a number
of people "above" us, and, we will have to engage in a test-fight. If
we grow older and weaker, we may have to give-up a position of dominance, but
our position does not only depend upon physical strength. As a member of an
older generation, we may compensate, with knowledge and insight, what we lack
in strength, and, it is more accurate to see the social position of a member in
a hierarchical scale as the result of a large number of factors, ranging from
position at birth, behaviour in relation to others, physical strength,
persuasiveness and manipulative abilities, moral strength, insight and
knowledge, as well as the record of past deeds and accomplishments.
22 This is only a rough and
tentative enumeration of the factors that may play a role in the establishment
of a hierarchical or social order in the more sophisticated early societies of
mankind, and, we will not pursue the matter any further, because we only want
to emphasise the fact, that the social position of an individual is, at least,
initially, determined by factors that are largely dependent upon the behaviour,
personality and physical capabilities of the individual.
23 True, the position at birth is
not under the control of an individual, and, we see in the larger human
societies many more factors that do not reflect the concept of a "personal
merit" in the determination of a social position. As long as the
hierarchical position reflects, primarily, the factors of "personal
merit", the individual will be able to accept this position as
"justified". In particular, if the position can be tested,
frequently, by a test-fight, the individual can "convince himself",
so to speak, that the position he or she occupies, is indeed justified.
However, if increasingly arbitrary factors, such as origin of birth or special
relationships with the leadership, distort the social position and do not
reflect, anymore, a factor of personal merit, then, the feeling of
justification and the ability to correct the situation by a test-fight,
disappears.
24 In the animal hierarchy, there
seems to be a rather simple formula; the individual with the strongest
personality, together with the physical strength and endurance to back-up the
instinctive tendency to impose his will, will occupy the highest positions,
but, at the same time, we see, that those, who occupy the highest positions
will automatically assume leadership responsibilities. There is little room for
the deliberate exploitation of the other members of a herd or flock, and, if
the herd or flock becomes too large, it breaks apart into a number of separate
social groupings, giving more dominant animals a chance to become leaders.
25 When human societies became
quite numerous and the territories into which larger groupings would have to
expand, were already occupied, the ability to relieve tensions by splitting a
social unit, disappeared. At the same time, the intense competitive strife
between social units would penalise any social unit that would allow itself to
be weakened by internal strife. There were always envious neighbours, ready to
move-in and exploit an opportunity for easy conquest.
26 Yet, if groupings could not
split-off anymore, and, if the members were dissatisfied with the conditions
under which they had to live, a whole new range of possibilities and mechanisms
would arise. Some of these mechansisms would be beneficial to everyone, but,
most of them would only favour a dominant elite.
27 In the early stages of the
socialisation of behaviourally flexible animals, the relinquishing of
territorial behaviour in favour of a group-territory, with hierarchical
relationships between the members, was an advantage to all participants. As
soon as a member would experience a disadvantage in comparison with the
previously solitary existence as a territorial animal, the animal would
automatically revert back to a solitary form of existence. We see, then, that
the flexibility of a tentative social arrangement ensures the conditions of
mutual advantage and acceptability, but, as soon as a group becomes locked into
a particular social hierarchy, this element of flexibility and mutual advantage
begins to disappear.
28 If the members do not have the
ability to go back to a territorial and solitary life-style, or, if they can
not break-away to form a new grouping with their own territory, we see,
immediately, the mechanisms of "exploitation" emerge. Indeed, what
prevents the dominant grouping to use its powers in such a way, that the other
members are forced to do all the hard work, while the dominant group assumes a
parasitic or exploitative life-style?
29 Such developments have certainly
been common in nearly all the larger human societies, and, the only factor
limiting the practice of exploitation, is the balance of power between a
dominant elite and the exploited majority. With modern weaponry and the ability
to equip and feed a hired army, it becomes relatively easy to maintain a
position of dominance over a large number of people, and, it is possible to
keep exploiting the economic possibilities of a large society for the benefit
of a small upper crust.
30 Eventually, oppressed people
always rise-up, whenever the tensions reach unbearable levels and the people
have nothing else to lose except a miserable life. If their existence has been
poisoned by a chronic and severe situation of injustice, as well as a feeling
of hopelessness about the chances of peaceful change, then, they will
inevitably challenge the ruling elite, regardless of the sacrifices and loss of
life resulting from an armed struggle. Revolutions are the most common means by
which the powerful grip of a dominant elite is loosened, often, only to be
replaced by a revolutionary elite that continues a form of oppression and
injustice of its own making.
31 Unfortunately, an amalgamation
of a number of culturally or ethnically diverse groupings will always give rise
to serious and chronic tensions, as these groupings tend to jockey for a
position of dominance amongst themselves. Yet, at the same time, this jockeying
creates a measure of internal stability by establishing a hierarchical order of
sub-groupings. Society becomes, then, a complex mosaic of groupings and
sub-groupings, locked into hierarchical power-struggles that assume, often, a
serious and bloody character.
32 It is clear, that the
capabilities of natural leadership become quickly overwhelmed by the complexities
of large and diverse societies. Within a natural grouping of a dozen or so
people, hierarchical problems are settled, quickly, by testing each other's
strengths and weaknesses, and, sometimes, by the imposition of a settlement by
the leader. The group is small enough for each member to know the others well,
and, the leader knows each member of the group intimately. This familiarity
with each other's behaviour, as well as the transparence and fluidity of
hierarchical relationships in a small social grouping, ensure an automatic
satisfaction of the sense of justice, and, the leader can step-in and settle
conflicts competently, whenever they threaten to get out of hand.
33 In the much larger societies,
the ability to know each member well becomes severely strained, and,
eventually, the members are only familiar with those who live in the immediate
environment, while the others blur into a grey and undifferentiated mass of
people, who are of little concern to the individual. Most members know only their
immediate social surroundings, and, the rest of society, including the
leadership, is looked upon with a feeling of suspicion and alienation.
34 The inability to oversee the
crowds, makes the leadership also more defensive, and, the leaders are tempted
to fortify their position of power and privilege with the loyalty of
"special people", who have been "bought" with favours and
bribes. Certainly, many members are quite willing to "sell" their
loyalty and pledge unquestioning support in return for such favours.
35 However, the emergence of
"favouritism" has a profound effect on the stability of hierarchical
relationships. These relationships had already become strained because of the
fact, that a large membership makes it more difficult to establish meaningful
hierarchical relations. Favouritism distorts the hierarchical positioning even
further, because changes are now brought-about arbitrarily by the leadership
and its policy of "picking favourites".
36 These changes are felt as a
grave injustice by those who are passed-over or left behind, and, as a result,
the level of discontent, suspicion and resentment rises. The leadership has to
resort to ever more forceful measures to maintain a position of power and
privilege, and, it does not take long before the ultimate solution to such
tensions and conflicts is used. Those, who are against the leadership or
challenge the elite in power are eliminated by assassinations, exile,
imprisonment, etc.
37 The ruthlessness of lawless
competitive strife has then re-asserted itself within the large social
environment, and it has re-asserted itself with an intensity that is not
usually seen between members of the same species. The reasons are, on the one
hand, the forced togetherness of peoples in social units that surpass, by far,
the natural ability of the members to identify with each other. These trends
towards alienation are aggravated by the mechanisms of "cultural
divergence". The absence of "normal" escape mchanisms, such as
the social break-away, leads to a level of hostility that can only be settled
by an all-out conflict, as well as the physical elimination of the loser.
38 However, before it comes to an
all-out conflict of internal warfare, we see many different levels of
intimidation and oppression, as well as genuine efforts to defuse tensions by
persuasion, compromise and attempts to correct, at least, the most glaring
incidences of injustice.
.......
Chapter 6
Content
Defusing social tensions with just and far-sighted regulatory mechanisms.
A stroke of genius; the concept and implementation of a contract of
"essential equality".
The problem of knowing everyone in a large-scale social environment.
Essential equality implies, also, the will-power, and the determination, to
squash parasitic or exploitative behaviour.
Our "heroes".
Factors that facilitate the growth of large and complex societies.
The effects of efficient task-specialisations.
Cellular specialisations in form and function.
A difficult balancing-act, necessary to preserve the conditions of essential
equality.
Special-interest groupings and their fragmenting influence upon society.
The phenomenon of "inflation".
An analysis of social and economic factors in a large and affluent society.
We all "feed" the large
corporations, because we have become dependent upon them.
We are democratic "big spenders".
The consequences of a dependence on a high level of consumption.
It is tempting to let the debt-load rise.
A high level of vulnerability.
1 Let us look at some of the
methods a leadership may use to defuse dangerously high levels of frustration,
resentment and injustice amongst the members of a large and complex society,
and, we think, here, primarily, about the measures, regulations and guidelines
far-sighted leaders can institute in their social environment. Successful laws
and guidelines may bring-about a dramatic reduction in tensions and
frustrations, and, they may increase the vitality of a society that has the
good fortune to get an intelligent and innovative leadership at a crucial
moment in its history.
2 One of the foremost problems
larger societies have to solve, is the question of less relevant hierarchical
relationships. We have seen, that it becomes increasingly difficult to know all
the members, and, it becomes very difficult to know our rightful position in
society. It becomes increasingly difficult to find a place in society, where we
feel, intuitively, that it corresponds with our abilities and ambitions. It
also becomes more difficult to form a realistic appraisal of our limitations,
because the chances to test and challenge, who-ever stands in our way to
advancement upon the social ladder, becomes more difficult. Last, but not least
of the problems people in a larger society have to face, is the practice of favouritism,
because it destroys, completely, this fragile sense of justice.
3 It was a stroke of genius by
those early leaders, when they introduced the idea to replace the hierarchical
order with the concept of essential equality. Certainly, the implementation of
such a concept in practice has always been difficult, and, it has never
succeeded completely, but, we should not underestimate the powerful influence
of the concepts of social equality on the efforts to regulate and guide
inter-personal relationships.
4 The introduction of the ideas
of essential equality made it also possible to re-establish a graduated
differentiation between people on the basis of merit and contribution, while it
exposed the practice of favouritism as unjust, unworkable, and, in essence,
self-defeating. Let us see, what the concept of essential equality means,
especially, for the feelings and awarenesses of the ordinary citizens of a
large-scale social environment.
5 What a glorious moment was it,
when a concerned and caring leader stepped into a dispute and said; "You
are equal. There is no need to fight, because I will make sure, that you will
all have the same rights, the same privileges and the same duties. I will not
treat anyone different from the others, because you are all equally dear to
me".
6 Yet, has nature in its wisdom
of natural selection not fore-shadowed these same attitudes and practices, when
it sharpened the instincts of parental care and concern? Does a concerned
parent not treat the members of his family with equal care and attention?
Therefore, the conscious solution of establishing a state of essential equality
is a "natural" one, or, rather, it is a re-discovery of a
"natural truth".
7 However, it is so difficult to
maintain a conscious contract of essential equality on a large scale, because
people are not equal in their talents and motivations, and the large numbers of
people make it impossible to cultivate an intimate contact between the members
and their leaders, which is such an essential characteristic of good family
relationships.
8 Some people will be more
helpful and cooperative than others, and, some will be more willing to work
hard for the common good. There is nothing easier than to let the people of
good-will and idealism do all the hard work, while others sit-back and reap the
benefits. Equal treatment of the membership by the leaders does not mean,
therefore, only a guarantee of equal rights and equal opportunities, but, it
also means, that the burdens of society have to be distributed equally, so that
the tendency to parasitic behaviour is rigorously squashed.
9 Fairness and equality means,
that a differentiation in position and authority on the basis of merit is, not
only, natural, but necessary, and, it is a trend that is stimulated and wanted
by the people themselves. Do we not see a natural tendency for people to
worship and adulate their heroes? Are heroes not people, who have been given a
special position of honour and privilege, because their deeds and achievements
are widely admired? We have every indication, that such a differentiation is,
not only, completely acceptable to our sense of justice, but, we all have a
need to elevate certain people as outstanding examples of desirable
behaviour-patterns and admirable achievements.
10 We should make sure, that we can
give the same spontaneous support to our leaders of the larger social entities,
and, we can only do this, if we, the people, can chose our leaders in free,
fair and informed elections.
11 Far-sighted leaderships of the
past recognised, intuitively, that the sense of justice could be satisfied by
treating all members equally, and, by making sure, that any judgement of a
dispute would be fair, competent and impartial. Therefore, a system of
judgement developed that looked towards precedents for guidance, and, later,
the abstract formulation of the principles of justice made it possible to
organise a sophisticated judicial apparatus that was specifically designed to
treat every citizen in society, equally and fairly.
12 However, when access to
specialised legal expertise and knowledge became, once again, a matter of
financial resources, the principles of justice, as well as the application of
the rules of law and order shifted, once again, in favour of a privileged and
wealthy minority.
13 There are other factors that
encouraged the development of the more complex societies, because, in addition
to the rather negative factors of "economic necessity" and a lack of
suitable territory, there are positive factors as well, such as the increased
ease of existence that comes with a successful division of chores.
14 It is a basic fact of existence
and performance, that it is easier to carry-out one task ten times, compared to
ten different tasks once, provided, of course, that all tasks are roughly equal
in level of difficulty and energy-expenditure. If we can perform a task many
times, we get an opportunity to "stream-line" the performance or
execution of this task. A task becomes easier, as soon as familiarity with the
task from previous experiences reduces the amount of conscious effort needed to
bring it to a successful conclusion. We can, then, streamline our performance,
and, the difference in time and effort between a task done for the first time
and one that is being performed, routinely, for the tenth time, can be
enormous.
15 The factors of familiarity and
streamlining may result in a remarkable reduction in energy, time and effort,
and, it is obvious, that we become far more efficient, if we can divide amongst
each other the necessary chores and tasks to keep us alive and well. If we can
distribute the tasks of securing our food-supply and safety over ten different
people or groups of people, we should, eventually, be able to secure our food
and safety at a fraction of the time and effort necessary, when each group or
individual would have to carry-out all the tasks.
16 From the earliest beginnings of
human socialisation, including the period of small nomadic groupings,
task-division and specialisation in function have played an important role in
the viability of a group, and, we see, that these principles also play a role
in groupings of socially integrated animals. Actually, the entire development
of multi-celluar life is based upon the same principles. Here, we see, not
only, that cells become strictly specialised anatomically and functionally, as
they group into organ-systems, but, we see, also, a much broader principle
arise; nl., that the social organisation of cells into strictly regulated
multi-cellular units has created a range of existence possibilities
transcending far beyond what would have been possible without the socialisation
of cells and their organisation into specialised and inter-dependent organs or
cellular colonies.
17 The specialisation in function,
together with the exploration of new modes of existence that take place in
multi-cellular units, are "natural experiments" by the forces of
natural selection. The successful results of these experiments have been
genetically encoded and are guided by the genetic code during the processes of
reproduction, as well as during ordinary existence. Our own multi-cellular
existence as a single individual is heir to the same natural experiments of
evolutionary development and genetic encoding.
18 In the social togetherness of
human beings and other socially organised mammals, there is a similar trend
towards seeking an enhanced viability through the mechanisms of cooperation and
task-division, but, we see, also, that the level of cohesion is far less
stringent than between the cell-groups of a multi-cellular individual. We are
not born "specialised", but, we have the capability, and the choice,
to become a specialised expert in one or other function. This specialisation in
function takes place after birth, and, after the organic specialisation of our
body has already taken place.
19 It is clear, that such a
secondary specialisation in function during maturation and adult life, only
takes place, if the development of such a specialised function is rewarded and
made possible by suitable social circumstances.
20 If such a specialisation is
rewarded with an increased ease of existence, as well as an acceptable measure
of security, such specialisations will occur, but, it is worthwhile to examine,
closely, what conditions are necessary to make the acquisition of special
skills worthwhile, and, which factors may inhibit or impede such a process of
functional specialisation by members of a socially integrated grouping.
21 Here, we come back to the
primary criterium for the success and viabiliy of a social organisation; nl.,
that this organisation has to be beneficial to all participants. The same
criterium applies to the inter-dependencies that develop during
task-specialisations. The benefits of the increased ease of existence must be
shared by all, but, all too often, the benefits of functional specialisation
are skimmed-off by a powerful, parasitic elite that begins to lead a life of
ease and pleasure, while belonging to society, means, for the working classes,
a state of poverty and enslavement.
22 We know, all too well, how
difficult it is to maintain a balance of power between the members and
sub-groupings of society, even, after the leadership of a social entity has
instituted special regulations and measures to safeguard the essential equality
of the members. We have discussed, on previous occasons, how the processes of
task-division and the manufacture of desirable and useful consumer goods in our
modern societies, tend to disrupt this precarious balance of essential
equality. We see, immediately, that a specialisation in function when making
goods or providing services, leads to inequalities, because some goods and
services are far more important and valuable than others, and, they become,
therefore, powerful bargaining tools in the hands of those, who make these
desired goods or provide these valuable services.
23 The level of dependence upon
essential or valuable items or services increases rapidly, as we see, when
workers migrate to the city in search of employment. They have to rent a
dwelling, buy all their food and pay for transportation, and, at the same time,
they become rapidly dependent upon their weekly pay-cheque or income. They are
at the mercy of everyone who charges them for the necessary facilities and
consumer items, while the individual worker has little power to demand higher
wages or better working conditions.
24 At least, this was the case,
before the disastrous consequences of such a marked inequality in power between
employer and employee had been recognised. Now, after many decades of
progressive labour legislation and the ever-increasing influence and power of
trade-union organisations, we see, that the balance of power has swung into the
opposite direction. Not only, are employers forced to keep increasing the wages
they have to pay because of the threat of strikes or work-stoppages, but, the
strike is increasingly directed at society itself.
25 Democratically elected
leaderships are held more and more often to ransom by these collective
work-stoppages, or "strikes", and, we see increasingly disruptive
effects of the interruption of important and essential services. This situation
gives the unionised worker a legal tool or weapon elevating his position of power
far above that of the average citizen, and, this event distorts, therefore, the
essential equality between people.
26 It is true, that many other
groupings, such as the monopolistic professional organisations, are achieving
equally disruptive hikes in earnings, and, we do not forget the massive
bureaucracies of inefficient governments and the secretive but ostentatious
company executives, who also excercise a disruptive influence upon the
mechanisms and principles of essential equality.
27 Let us look, for a moment, at
the disruptive effects of the phenomenon of "inflation". The
inflationary spiral of ever-increasing government deficits with high levels of
borrowing and spending, has led to the complete abandonment of one of the
primary tasks of governments; nl., to guarantee the value of their currencies.
Add to this the fact, that the benefits of competitive marketing have been
replaced by the emergence of cartels and near-monopolies that can virtually
dictate the price of consumer items and services under their control, and, we
become aware of the reasons, why the attitudes of frugality and the practices
of restraint have been abandoned by so many people.
28 The evolution of labour-unions
and pofessional organisations, business cartels, bureaucracies, as well as an
unstable currency, all these factors have conspired to erode the basic contract
of essential equality in our modern, affluent societies. Yet, the dream and the
illusion linger-on, and, we desperately point to the practice of universal voting
rights in order to sustain our hopes and expectations of living in a just and
democratic society.
29 However, in reality, our
practices and attitudes have already reverted to a fierce, competitive strife,
which is fought with a ruthless and rising intensity between the members of
these societies of "equal opportunity". We do not fight for an
increase in pay, because we really need it, but, because we are suspicious,
that, someone else, or some other group is fighting even harder, or, worse, is
being treated more favourably than we are. We are willing, without any
hesitation, to paralyse the most important functions in society, because we
suspect, that we are not getting a fair deal. Our lives are poisoned by
mistrust and suspicion. We do not know, whom to believe. We are afraid to be
hoodwinked, and, we think, that an attitude of moderation and reasonableness is
a sign of weakness, as well as an opportunity for someone else to defraud us.
30 In spite of all our
technological expertise, and, in spite of the fact, that most members are
locked tightly into the mechanisms of financial dependencies, most affluent
societies are boiling with discontent, and they are nearly paralysed by
inefficiency, inertia, corruption, as well as an attitude of egocentric
defensiveness.
31 Most of us are enslaved and
caught in the position we are in, because, in part, our skills are specialised,
and, our ability to find work and generate an income depend upon a continuation
of this "economic momentum" that supports the various specialised
functions and entices us to keep consuming at a high level. We all have been
goaded and indoctrinated by the existential requirements of this economic
momentum and its protagonists, the advertising industry, to live in a floriant
life-style of consumption and debt-financing.
32 Initially, the processes of
task-division and specialisation in function led to a flourishing trade, and a
general increase in the level of well-being, especially, when the laws of
society ensured, at least, a measure of fair income distribution, but, we have
now reached a situation, where we all have become enslaved to the needs of the
large multi-national corporations. We fail to see, with clarity, how we all
"feed" these multi-national corporations, because we have allowed
ourselves to adopt a life-style of consumerism. This means, that we struggle
ever more desperately to have jobs, in particular, to have jobs that pay well,
and, because most jobs are now provided by the dinosaurs of big government and
big business, we can not afford to tamper with their growth, or to question the
reasons for their existence.
33 Yet, these dinosaurs need ever
more cash in order to sustain their existence, and, we, the ordinary members of
society, are urged to spend ever more and faster in order to make it possible
for the governments and the multi-national corporations to continue their
lumbering existence.
34 It is ironic, that we have,
finally, avoided, at least, to some extent, the pernicious division, where an
upper crust consumes and the poor majority does all the work. Certainly, there
are still many countries, where there is such a division between the rich and
the poor, but, the large, affluent nations have reached a high level of
consumption in which the great majority of the people, still, participates. We
are democratic "big spenders", and, the ordinary workers, the
professionals, and, even, people on social assistance, all spend lavishly and
recklessly, because it does not make sense, anymore, to save.
35 Let us review the consequences
of a high level of consumption. If an organism needs a high level of energy in
order to sustain its existence, it is obviously far more vulnerable to
deprivation and starvation, compared to an organism that is able to maintain a
state of health with a much lower level of energy consumption. We see the same
vulnerability in an individual, who carries a debt-load. This debt has to be
paid-off, an interest-charge has to be paid over the outstanding account, and,
the failure to maintain a high income of cash jeopardises the well-being of
this individual.
36 In the sophisticated, affluent
societies, most people, certainly those, who are cloistered in an urban and
sub-urban environment, have to pay dearly for the basic necessities of housing,
clothing and food. They require, therefore, a high level of minimum cash-flow
to sustain themselves in their social environment, and, any outstanding debts
have to be paid-off in regular installments. Failure to do so may mean the loss
of a home, furniture, appliances, or the family-car, which are all basic
commodities in such an environment. Perhaps, these things are not really
essential necessities in the strict sense of staying alive, but, certainly, in
the sense of maintaining a social position and going to work, in order to
bring-in this all-important pay-cheque.
37 Certainly, inflationary
pressures and the high initial costs of buying a home make it inevitable in our
contemporary, affluent societies, that a young couple, at the beginning of
their earning career, buys a home with the help of a loan or mortgage, and,
once the psychological barriers against having a debt over their head have been
overcome, it is tempting to let the debt-load rise in a wild spending spree and
a rapidly escalating, sumptuous life-style, until almost all income is taken-up
by the re-payment of loans.
38 This makes costly sickness and
accident insurance a necessity, and, it makes the occurrence of a loss of
income, a disaster. Such people become pre-ocupied with their financial
obligations, and, they can only look with envy and resentment to those, who can
still buy more and consume more. Unhappiness and dissatisfaction become
chronic, while life is spent in a useless round of wasteful trivialities. The
moral backbone withers-away, and the attitude of frugality is laughed at, but
the realities of entrapment remain.
39 Any individual who lives this
way, is extremely vulnerable to set-backs, such as a disease, the loss of a
job, drug or alcohol dependencies, a rise in interest-rates, an economic slump,
high costs and taxes on income and property, etc., etc. These are all examples
of unhealthy dependencies sharing a common denominator in the fact, that there
exists an unnecessarily high level of consumption.
.......
Chapter 7
Content
Natural parallels with the trappings of an affluent life-style.
The dependence on a "job".
Fiscal, physical and psychological dependencies.
A number of other dependencies.
The benefits of becoming more versatile and more broadly skilled.
We are social beings, be it, primarily, "small-scale".
Neurotic dependencies.
Emotions do not constitute the "highest" forms of human behaviour.
The conditions that are necessary for a superb performance.
The emergence of a "supra-individual unit".
The attitudes of "symbiosis".
A balance between contribution and reward.
Measuring productivity.
Incentives and existential anxieties.
1 The entrapments and
dependencies associated with an affluent life-style are mirrored, at least, to some
extent, in nature. A successful evolutionary break-through leads to a rapid
population growth, increasing its dependence upon a large and reliable
food-supply, but, sometimes, the solution to a problem in survival is found in
the development of a very large size. Here, too, a dependence upon a large
food-supply has been formed, because a large animal has to consume an enormous
amount of food to sustain its hulk. It becomes susceptible to minute climatic
changes that may, suddenly, alter the availability of this large but obligatory
food-supply. A dangerous dependence has, then, developed in the search for an
existential advantage, size, and, this dependence may lead to a rather sudden
demise.
2 Natural selection frequently
adapts a species rather precisely to a particular ecological niche, or a
specific set of environmental circumstances. As long as these conditions are
maintained, the species lives quite well and nearly free from severe stress,
because it dominates this particular ecological niche so completely, that it is
relatively free from competition. However, if this niche is disturbed, for one
reason or another, the species may not be flexible enough to adapt to the
changing circumstances because of its high degree of specialisation. Extinction
usually follows.
3 The same mechanisms play a role
in society, where a large number of people may allow themselves to become
highly dependent upon a particular "ecological niche"; e.g. a job. If
the job disappears, the results may be disastrous, and, while actual extinction
or death is unlikely, the disruption may be quite traumatic for the individual
and his dependents.
4 A consumptive life-style, the
need for a high cash-flow, too narrow a spectrum of marketable skills, and, too
great a psychological or physical dependence upon a certain environment, are
all factors or dependencies that make us vulnerable. As long as all these
circumstances and conditions are intact, we function well, but, as soon as the
conditions change, we begin to experience a rather severe form of stress, and,
the more dependent we have become, the less flexible we are, and the less able
we are to cope with, or yield to, the various forms of stress we are being
exposed to.
5 Such dependencies are
certainly, not only, financial in nature, but, financial obligations belong to
the most important and obvious dependencies of an affluent life-style. We may
develop severe physical dependencies upon specific types of consumption, e.g.,
when body and mind become dependent upon the consumption of alcohol and other
habit-forming drugs, or, we may become dependent upon the sensation of eating,
consuming ourselves into a state of obesity.
6 We may become dependent upon a
large variety of sensual gratifications, ranging from sexual pleasures, gambling
and violence, to a variety of pleasing experiences in sound, sight and other
sensory or sensual experiences. We may become dependent upon tobacco or coffee,
but, these are, in essence, part of a dependence on drugs, like alcohol.
7 We may also become dependent
upon the help and support of other people. In our specialised societies, it is
so easy to do only the job we have learned, and, to let other people take care
of all other needs; from building and maintaining our house, growing and
supplying our food, to maintaining our car and household appliances, and
providing us with all sorts of services, sources of energy and entertainment.
8 The plumbing and electrical
wiring in our homes, the repair of tools and instruments, as well as the
numerous chores in and around the garden are done by others. We have our hair
cut, our food prepared, etc. There is an endless series of goods and services
that cater to us, at least, in the densely populated areas of affluent life,
but, the more we have done for us, the more we have to pay.
9 We can gradually and partially
work our way back to a more independent mode of existence, by learning to do
many of the simpler jobs ourselves. We do not need to be so dependent upon
others. Besides, by doing things for ourselves, we gain self-confidence and
broaden our field of competence. There is excitement in learning new skills. We
discover, that many things are not as difficult or as mysterious as we thought,
but, we also realise, that each one of these efforts to regain a measure of
independence, costs energy and time, and, we learn, that we have to make a
genuine effort, before we can expect success.
10 There are other, primarily,
psychological dependencies. We may need people around us, partly, just to talk
to, and, partly, to do things for us; to support us, when we are depressed; to
share our joys and fun, or our difficulties and efforts to find solutions.
No-one is perfectly happy, when always alone, but, most of us require a shell
of privacy, where we can be alone and undisturbed for short periods of time,
whenever we want to think and relax.
11 After all, we are social
creatures, be it on a small social scale, and, most of us have frequent and
meaningful contacts with other people, in particular, those we are related to.
Most of us find a balance between relationships, where we are, primarily,
supporting others, and, where other people support us.
12 If the balance weighs heavily
towards a contact where we receive, rather than give support, we belong to
those neurotic people, who rely, heavily, for their emotional sanity upon the
support of others. If we thrive in a situation, where we are continuously
called-upon for support, we are somewhat "masochistic" in nature,
and, we gain a sense of importance and self-confidence by being constantly
needed.
13 We manipulate each other
constantly, emotionally, as well as psychologically, but, if these
manipulations are strongly emotional and egocentrically oriented, we live in an
unhealthy hot-house of tensions. It is far better to take a little distance
from each other, because it is, then, much easier to remain rational and
controled in our relationships.
14 A rational approach, together
with a more objective reality perception, lets us see the common denominators
between us all, and, we can, then, recognise, much easier, the broad
similarities in behaviour, including our aspirations and emotions. When we are
emotionally wrapped-up in each other, we lose our perspective and objectivity.
In a rational approach, we can give each other the dignity of being human,
without the need to fall into those polarising love-hate relationships that
form so quickly, whenever we react emotionally to the people around us.
15 Let us get rid of the erroneous
idea, that our emotional feelings and reactions constitute the highest forms of
contact between human beings, or, the most rewarding experiences we can have.
The most rewarding experience we can have is to see a human being, or a group
of people, react to a variety of difficult and taxing circumstances with
controled emotions and a finely tuned, rational response.
16 It is good to recognise the need
to help each other, as well as the need to look after our own interests. It is
refreshing to see an individual try to solve problems on his or her own,
neither reaching helplessly and neurotically for immediate assistance, nor,
proudly and stubbornly refusing all help and cooperation.
17 Man functions at his best, when
he is flexible and innovative, calm, yet sensitive to all the finer details of
what is happening; ready to help and cooperate, when necessary, but anxious to
do as much as possible himself, and, willing to let others help themselves as
much as possible.
18 Certainly, the degree of
independence and inter-dependence will always be a flexible balance-point that
is going to shift, whenever the circumstances are changing. If a group of
people has to work closely together, or accomplish a difficult task in a
confined environment, where the existential requirements run parallel, it makes
sense to integrate the personalities to such an extent, that we see the
emergence of a "supra-individual behavioural unit". Look, e.g., at
the behaviour of people, when a small team has to pilot a space-flight, or make
a difficult journey in a sub-marine.
19 In other circumstances, it is
much more natural, and far healthier, to emphasise individual achievement, as
we see in many sports or artistic activities, or, the routine tasks of daily
existence. If we seek help, because we do not want to make the effort to learn
and do things for ourselves, our pleas for support will generate an atmosphere
of reluctance and condescension, but, if we ask for assistance, because we
really are unable to do anything more for ourselves, help will be readily forthcoming,
and, it will be mixed with a feeling of admiration for the effort that has been
made to overcome difficulties independently.
20 This last attitude represents a
condition of symbiosis, where we cooperate and help each other in a spirit,
that recognises the right of other people to be as free and independent as is
possible under the prevailing circumstances. If we rely unnecessarily upon
other people, our own talents wither-away. We start to depend on this help and
our personality becomes useless and irritating, because the relationship
becomes parasitic rather than symbiotic.
21 Everyone in society should ask
the question; "Is there a fair balance between the goods and services I
receive from others and the quality and quantity of my contributions to
society?". Often, this question is difficult to answer, and the equation
is difficult to measure, because we may try to make a precarious living by
artistic efforts. Then, we do not produce something others need. At best, we
hope to make, or do something, that others like and are willing to spend some
money on. Let us, then, measure the equation between contribution and return by
gauging the efforts we put into our achievements, and, we can be sure, that,
even, those artists or sports-people, who never make the headlines, earn their
modest returns on the basis of sincere efforts and hard work.
22 True, we can not always equate a
sincere effort with a contribution to society, but, we know, also, that many of
us receive far more in pay or equivalent goods and services, than we give to
society. The need to have a balanced equation between input and return seems to
escape many people, who draw large salaries without being able to show a
worthwhile productivity in return.
23 How are we going to measure the
productivity of a bureaucrat, an elected representative, or, anyone else, who
fulfills a function that can not be measured, specifically, in terms of goods
or services produced? This question is often asked, but, in a way, it is
misleading. We should be able to measure, at least, qualitatively, and, to some
extent, quantitatively, everyone's function in society, and, the productivity
of a bureaucrat, a politician, a teacher, or a leadership, should be measured
according to the objectives of their tasks.
24 We should learn to apply
criteria of efficiency to our government bureaucracies, and, we should learn to
sweep-away the gross redundancies and inefficiencies of many government
departments. We should learn to control the growth of bureaucracies and their
impenetrable complexity. We should learn to control the spending powers of our
leaders and politicians, because, in our modern, affluent societies, the growth
and proliferation of bureaucracies is reaching paralysing levels of
inefficiency and redundance.
25 Bureaucracies may become
organisms that have escaped nearly all controls, and, they are likely to behave
like a cancer, sapping the energies of society, confusing the people, and
becoming centers for power and corruption, as soon as chaos reaches such a
level, that the social machinery begins to fall-apart.
26 We have to come to grips with
the problems of existential anxiety, because these anxieties make every
bureaucrat a fighter for his or her particular job or position. We have
outlined, before, how we can overcome the tendency towards such unhealthy
attitudes. It can be done by removing the dependence upon a job as the primary
source of financial security and social standing.
27 "How else are we going to
get people to work?", you may ask, "unless we make them work with the
threat of being left behind or feeling a bit hungry? Look at the disastrous
effects of many of our social assistance programs, where the level of financial
support erodes the incentive to go to work". Indeed, incentive is an
important factor, but, we are wrong, if we consider a financial gain the only
significant incentive to do good work. Our incentives should be geared towards
the fulfilment of potentials, as well as the rewards of prestige and
responsibility, rather than the acquisition of assets and money.
28 The rights of belonging to
society are only meaningful, if we have the transparence, as well as the means,
to make sure, that we also share, equally and fairly, the responsibilities of
duties, chores and obligations. Without this essential equation between rights
and duties, we can not maintain justice and a stable, viable social
environment.
.......
Chapter 8
Content
A summary of what has been discussed.
All events, including those of the living organisation, depend on the internal
potentials of the participating elements, as well as the conditions and
circumstances in which these events take place.
Life is a series of on-going, largely complementary events.
Behavioural flexibility is a major tool in the search for viability for large
and complex organisms.
The cultural code, and the potentials of intelligent behaviour.
Man, the manipulator, became his own, most dangerous enemy.
A rudimentary anlage for social cooperation.
Mechanisms of stress.
The problems associated with a "closed society".
Attempts to slow-down the accumulation of privileges, power and wealth.
The judiciary.
We know more, now, about the requirements of individual and collective
viability, as well as the mechanisms of social decay.
The importance of our outlook on life.
Possibilities for a globally integrated social environment.
The many faces of justice.
A basic package of rights and obligations.
The doctrine of complete social transparence.
Using the same conceptual language.
Do we really want Peace and Justice, or, do we want to preserve an advantage or
a privilege.
We have to educate our leaders and aspiring leaders.
The benefits of a sober life-style.
The potential of creating nearly ever-lasting life for mankind on a carefully
managed planet earth.
1 Let us summarise, then, the
conditions, factors and circumstances that have the potential of providing a
stable and viable existence for the whole of mankind, and, let us define the
trends and developments that jeopardise the sense of justice and the vitality
of human beings, individually as well as collectively. It seems reasonable to
make the sense and concept of justice the central point in a discussion about
the essence of long-term survival.
2 We know, now, that all events
happen as a result of the internal potentialities of the event itself, as well
as the conditions under which the event takes place. The inter-actions between
human beings, and the relationships between man and his environment, are also
events, that are guided by the nature of the participants in these events,
together with a series of external conditions and factors making these events
possible in the first place.
3 Life is an event, or, rather, a
system of on-going events that have found a possibility of existence. The
events of the living organisation became, gradually, more complex and
inter-dependent because of an on-going search for viability and adaptability.
Life has, indeed, been successful, because the original circumstances that made
the origin of life possible, have long since disappeared, but a profusion of
species' still exist.
4 Because of the evolution of the cellular unit, together with the many possibilities for specialisation in function and symbiotic inter-dependence, specialised uni-cellular units, as well as multi-cellular organisms, have been able to penetrate into environmental circumstances and conditions that are far removed from the original conditions under which life arose.
5 Behavioural flexibility is one
of the many methods nature has employed in its search for viability and a
continuing expansion into previously unexplored ecological circumstances. The
human species is a prime example of the capability to master and manipulate
environmental circumstances and conditions with the grasp of concept-formation
and structures of belief or interpretation.
6 The genetic code functions as
an instrument to create especially favourable circumstances for the existence
of organic compounds and their inter-actions. These especially created
conditions and circumstances are necessary for a complex series of
inter-related events to occur without interruptions or deviations. We know,
now, that the reproduction of a complex organism would not be possible, without
carefully controled conditions, nor, would the existence of a living,
multi-cellular organism be possible without a carefully controled
"internal environment".
7 The cultural code of
intelligent behaviour allows man the possibility to grasp and manipulate circumstances
and conditions with a similar degree of efficiency as the genetic code, and,
the results of this cultural faculty are reflected in the dramatic spread of
the human species all over the world, and, even, into nearby space. Man ranged
far from his tropical homelands, and he learned to live in damp and cold
climates, thanks to this cultural code and the transmission of knowledge,
skills and insights.
8 Man mastered the use of fire,
learned to clothe and protect himself, and, he learned to store food through
the winter and other lean periods. Man fashioned all sorts of tools that helped
him hunt and control the animals of the plains, and, he managed to harvest and
utilise, eventually, even, the biggest trees of the forests.
9 The successful mastery over a
large variety of natural conditions and events led to man's unsurpassed
supremacy in the hierarchical scale of predatorial life. Man became the hunter
of everything, and, he was hunted by no other species except his own. Another
man became man's most dangerous enemy, but, another human being could, also, be
his most valuable ally.
10 The evolutionary success of man,
together with a marked increase in the size and number of social units, led to
the need to cultivate food-supplies, because the natural supplies, available to
forageing, nomadic groupings, were insufficient to feed everyone. Fortunately,
man had a rudimentary inclination to cooperate on a larger scale, but the
requirements for a stable and viable, large-scale social environment were beyond
the scope of man's biological heritage.
11 Our biological heritage includes
a complex package of drives and instincts, reflexes and other
behaviour-patterns, which is part of the genetic code, and has been shaped over
many hundreds of millions of years by the forces of natural selection and
evolutionary change. These instinctive patterns of behaviour form a genetic
heritage, together with all the anatomic and physiological characteristics that
determine our existence.
12 Man searched, and still searches,
rather desperately, for a viable way to organise himself into large-scale
social groupings, because the increase in population, as well as the ever more
stringent limitations on the ability to expand into new territories and find
new food-supplies, led to a sharply increased level of strife within and
between groups of people.
13 These competitive pressures and frictions between individuals, as well as small and large groupings, led to a situation of chronic warfare, as well as the practice of oppression, approaching the ruthless mechanisms of strife between living organisms in "raw nature", which lack any form of social organisation.
14 The phenomenon of hierarchical
ordening had taken place long before the emergence of the human species, but, the
need of human groupings to fuse into larger conglomerates, showed the
inadequacies of the hierarchical order as an instrument to avoid severe
internal strife in large-scale social entities. It became very difficult to
know everyone within a social environment, and, it was impossible to become
familiar with everyone's strengths and weaknesses. Hierarchical positions
became vague and confused, and they were increasingly determined by arbitrary
factors that did not reflect, in any way, the strength and merits of an
individual.
15 There was a tendency for members
to become "pegged" within a social stratum on account of their origin
of birth, and, certain members would be arbitrarily elevated to a position of
great influence and power by the practices of favouritism, bribery or flattery.
16 The loss of the ability to
break-away from a social unit, and, to seek new possibilities of existence in
virgin territories, became a source of severe stress, because all fertile lands
had already been occupied. Only after a period of widespread conquest, and the
elimination of inhabitants in a sparsely populated area, was it possible to
break-away and "expand", once again.
17 The processes of task-differentiation and specialisation in function also undermined the traditional and emotionally satisfying manner of determining a hierarchical order by test-fights. The fortuitous results of a successful product, or a useful service, created, rapidly, a measure of dependence upon this product or service, and, this gave extra-ordinary powers to the providers of these successful products and services. In a "closed" society, people could not break-away anymore, and the population would begin to differentiate into an "upper crust", with nearly complete control over economic and political mechanisms, and, a large majority, that was exploited and had to slave in poverty, ignorance, deprivation and a dull sense of resentment.
18 Throughout the period of
literate or recorded history, leaders and thinkers have been concerned with,
and baffled by, these trends. They have tried to correct these seemingly
inevitable and irreversible mechanisms of differentiation and polarisation.
Slowly, man's understanding improved, and guidelines emerged that slowed-down,
at least, to some extent, the accumulation of power, privileges and wealth into
the hands of a small elite.
19 Slowly, people began to
understand something about the conditions and factors that led to
"polarisation", or disparities, within the larger social entities,
and, far-sighted leaders began to introduce rules and regulations to maintain a
measure of equality, justice and stability. Slowly, people began to realise,
that the subconscious sense of justice could be used as a basis to build a more
durable and equitable arrangement of social relationships. The sense of justice
evolved, slowly, into an articulated concept of justice, but, it became also
clear, that the judgement of what is fair, equitable and just would differ
widely from one person to the next, and, from one group to another.
20 Firm, but intelligent
leaderships were able to create specialised institutions to settle disputes in
the most thorough and equitable manner possible. However, if disputes occurred between
citizens and their leadership, or, if conflicts arose between powerful groups
that were independent from each other, without any over-riding authority, then,
the judicial institutions failed in their efforts to bring-about a peaceful,
just, equitable and mutually acceptable settlement, because there would be no
authority to make the belligerent parties abide by such a judicial decision.
Conflict could, then, only be resolved by serious and honest negotiations. If
this failed too, the conflict would inevitably harden the attitudes of the
belligerents, as the chain of events accelerated towards a violent
confrontation.
21 Now, we know better than ever
before, how necessary it is to avoid the polarisation of attitudes, and, to
halt the slide towards a violent confrontation. Sometimes, we are tempted to
believe, that man has, indeed, learned to live together on a much larger scale
than was possible at the beginning of "civilisation", but, then, what
is the basis for such an optimistic conclusion? Indeed, for short periods,
prosperity and reason seem to prevail, but, the ravages of a prolonged period
of affluence and well-being seem to be so devastating, that no society has
managed to escape the processes of decay for long. After a few generations have
been born into easy and affluent circumstances, people begin to undermine their
conditions of privilege and security, once again.
22 Indeed, it seems, as if nature
has already abandoned any concern for the viability of modern man. Perhaps, the
human experiment has already failed, and, we may be on an irreversible course
towards extinction. Yet, as long as we exist, we have the possibility to break
through this impasse, because, after all, nature has promoted the cultural code
as a co-sponsor of the criteria of viability, and, it is still possible, that
long-term viability can be regained, or established, by constructing an
enduring and successful cultural code with global relevance as the pillar for
this quality of long-term viability.
23 Perhaps, future generations will
look upon their times with more optimism. Perhaps, we will again see more
hope-giving political and cultural developments in the future, and, we should
do, what we can, to keep alive the insights that have the potential to
bring-about a stable and viable society of mankind on a global scale.
24 Certainly, it is within our
reach to create a durable global society, but, we will have to make a
fundamental decision. Do we, indeed, want to minimise tensions between
ourselves by giving each human being a scrupulously implemented and adhered-to
package of opportunities, rights and obligations, or, do we want to perpetuate
a position of privilege and advantage, by force? If we are not going to
give-up, voluntarily, at least, some of our privileges, assets and fortunate
circumstances, then, we opt, in essence, for an all-out conflict, and, we make
it inevitable, that our positions of privilege will be challenged, eventually,
with the instruments of violence.
25 We may think, that it is
completely justified to occupy the position we are in, because, we, our family,
or our forefathers, have developed the country or the area to what it is, now.
Certainly, there are many reasons, why we may feel justified in holding-on to
what we have, and, we, our family and forefathers, may also have made many
serious attempts to help those who were less fortunate. We may have been
disappointed by the reactions of those we tried to help. We may have come to
the conclusion, that some peoples can not be helped, and, that their ignorance
is engraved by an inferior genetic make-up. We may genuinely believe that man
is destined to be divided into rulers and followers; that some people will
always be poor and ignorant, while others have to carry the responsibilities
and burdens of leadership and government.
26 Yet, do we understand all the
reasons, why people with a long history of poverty and oppression can not
suddenly be transformed into enlightened and responsible citizens, willing to
cooperate with those, who have been their superiors for so long? Many of us can
go back in history and see, how our fathers and forefathers were looked-down
upon as ignorant peasants. It is not all that long ago, that Europeans were
looked-down upon by the Greeks and Romans as "barbarians", and, how
long ago were the immigrants to
27 Certainly, justice does not mean
an indiscriminate confiscation of privileges and property. The attitudes of
hatred and class-warfare, where the workers and the peasants rise-up with an
attitude of outright hatred against the established elite, should be shunned
for its destructive and polarising effects, but, the attitude that an elite
should determine the criteria of justice, law and order, as well as the nature
of the social order, is just as destructive and polarising.
28 We have to know, why these
polarisations and disparities occurred in the past, and, we have no right to
consider any part of society, nor, any part of mankind, as an "arch
enemy" who has to be eliminated. We may fight erroneous attitudes and
incidences of ignorance, and, we may condemn elitism and self-righteous
fanaticism, but, we should not forget, that, every human being, from the
poorest peasant to the richest land-owner, may become an elitist and
self-righteous fanatic, or, a saint; the epitomy of responsibility and
good-will.
29 Each human being should be given
this basic package of rights and obligations because of the fact, that we are
human beings, regardless of our status, beliefs and origins.
30 Certainly, behaviour can become
criminal, and, after a competent judicial inquiry and judgement, sentencing and
rehabilitation, a persistent and incorrigeable criminal may have to be
eliminated, but the practice of summary trials and executions is, in essence,
an act of primitive murder that is primarily directed towards rivals. These
practices represent a regrettable step backwards in the evolution of attitudes
and relationships between human beings, who have learned to recognise the
mechanisms and consequences of all-out competitive strife.
31 As a matter of fact, the time
has come, that we can not tolerate, any longer, the indiscriminate slaughter by
a fanatic and dictatorial regime, or a lawless and uncontroled army. The time
has come to do something about the injustices that are being perpetrated, be it
in another country, or, in our own backyard. However, before interfering, let
us examine, soberly, whether or not we can be accused of opportunistic or
abusive practices; whether or not we have, indeed, the moral right to interfere
in the affairs of other people. We know, that we can never be right, if we
interfere, primarily, for our own interest or benefit.
32 A package of scrupulously equal
rights and obligations has to be protected against abuse, and, this means, that
we have to have a great deal of transparence in our dealings with each other.
Why should any transaction have to be secret? Why should our assets and incomes
be hidden? Why should we not have the right to know, exactly, what goes-on
within a business, a government department, between leaders and their
followers, or between societies?
33 The doctrine of complete transparence seems radical and frightening, because we still think in terms of privacy and privileged information, but, it will become clear, that justice can only be guaranteed, if we can deal with each other in an atmosphere of openness and trust. We can only generate and maintain trust, if each one of us is able to check, at any time, whether or not someone else, or some other group, business or institution, is also "playing by the rules".
34 If we have been honest in our
transactions and the way we make a living and gathered our assets, why, then,
should we resent the fact, that someone else may know, exactly, how much we
have, how much we earn, how well we live, or, what difficulties we have to cope
with?
35 On other occasions, we have
dealt, in more detail, with the requirements for a just society, and, we will
only recapitulate, here, the broad principles. Before we can even begin to
discuss with each other what we mean by a "just society", we will
have to agree, in overall terms, about our interpretations and reality
perceptions, and, this includes broad agreement about our origins and nature.
However, we also know, that we can not bring unity of thought and belief with
force, and, the Age of the Crusades and Holy Wars, is, really, over, in spite
of the fact, that we see some disconcerting signs, that man's behaviour could
regress, again, to such a primitive level.
36 We have to learn to talk the
same conceptual language, and, we have to learn to accomodate and compensate
for regional and cultural differences. As long as we behave as if we are the
only group or individual in possession of the truth, we will continue to
alienate others by our ignorance, and, we will perpetuate feelings of injustice
and resentment.
37 We will have to generate a
discussion on a global scale, where we define, methodically and precisely, what
we really mean with the words we use. We will also have to face, squarely, this
crucial question, time and again; do we really want global justice and peace,
or, do we only want to hold-on to what we have?
38 If we want to be somewhat
successful in our efforts to understand each other, (and about the ways we can
work towards a global harmony), we will have to set-up a global network of
information, where we can educate ourselves, together with the younger
generations, about the most pressing needs, the best possible grasp over
specific problems and realities, as well as a thorough and honest evaluation of
all the arguments that are brought for or against a particular point of view.
39 We will have to persuade and
educate our leaders, because they tend to hold-on to their territorial
instincts. They are inundating us with their concerns for their own particular
region and peoples, but, often, leaders behave like stubborn goats and
recalcitrant youngsters, especially, when they are faced with the task of
forming a consensus, or, to work-out a solution for the common good of their
combined territories and peoples.
40 We will also have to get hold of
our multi-national dinosaurs, because they have too much power, as well as a
disastrous influence upon the attitudes and habits of ordinary people. We have
to learn to slow-down the economic exploitation of our natural resources, and,
we have to abandon the erroneous philosophy, that we have to stimulate economic
growth, continuously, in order to cope with unemployment and a restless
populace.
41 We have to learn to live
frugally, carefully consuming what we need, abandoning unnecessary luxuries,
until we are sure, that it is possible to let everyone have a little more,
without jeopardising our supplies and long-term prospects for a healthy and
decent existence. We will have to learn to reject any argument, that gives the
right of ownership over natural resources to the people who happen to live
there, or, who happen to have control over an area by previous conquest or some
other historic event. This may be one of the most difficult tasks to
accomplish, because ownership of land and resources is so intricately tied to
feelings of communal and individual security.
42 However, when we think about the
requirements of equality of opportunity and justice on a global scale, we can
not arrive at any other conclusion. We have to agree, that, all natural
resources, as well as all natural and man-made problems, are the ownership, and
responsibility, of the human species as a whole.
43 This does not mean, that all
personal property has to be abolished. It will be advantageous, even necessary,
to have many smaller belongings for which we carry a personal responsibility,
and, nobody will begrudge an individual or group the fruits of hard work and
frugal attitudes, but there is absolutely no justification for the privileges
and luxuries that are the wind-fall of a fortunate inheritance.
44 If we think along these lines,
we will see a light, even, many lights, where there appears to be only darkness
and confusion. There is good reason to believe, that an intelligent appraisal
of our existence, our relationships with the environment, as well as the many
dependencies and inter-dependencies we are subjected to, will show us, clearly,
how we can create a nearly ever-lasting life and viability for mankind, right
here, on earth. At the same time, we will also develop a much clearer idea
about those trends and developments which will lead to a precipitous
catastrophe and a total collapse of the ability to survive.
.......
Summary
1. Inter-dependence and symbiosis; definitions.
Symbiosis, parasitism and predation.
Relationships between people.
The evolution of organisational patterns.
The "cell".
Inter-dependencies between radiant and orbital energy-forms.
All events require a set of suitable conditions, before they can take place.
Testing, fluidly, every niche of existence possibilities.
The conditions of existence.
A conglomerate of inter-dependence may overcome individual vulnerabilities of
the participating members.
Pre-cellular evolution.
The tendency to re-establish an equilibrium of opposing force-fields.
The break-through of "complementary events"; the chain-reaction.
2. Fluctuations in conditions and circumstances.
Excited electrons.
The barriers of "night-fall".
A difficult imagery to work with, or believe in.
The whole machinery must have "clicked together".
A Creative Intelligence, versus an Evolutionary Search.
A confluence between the concepts of creation and evolution.
Mechanisms and consequences of polymerisation.
Duplicating a structure with complementary strands.
Growth in the living and non-living systems.
The protoplasmic primordium has disappeared.
Reproduction depends on the "creation" of specific, favourable
circumstances.
A "nest" of very complex inter-dependencies.
Evolutionary adaptations.
The evolution of creative designs.
3. The bibilical concept of Creation.
Can something come from nothing?
The origin of God.
The appearance of randomness in the occurrence of numerous similar and
simultaneous events.
Scattering grains of sand.
The summarising functions of the mind, and the concept of randomness.
Randomness and Guidance.
A deliberate, creative act of the human will.
Behavioural flexibility, and the need to finely tune our behaviour-patterns.
A brief outline of awareness, consciousness, symbolic representation, and a
willed, intelligent, behavioural response.
The relativity of knowledge.
A number of questions.
An essential equivalence between the creative functions of human existence and
the forces of natural selection.
Neither one, nor the other, is perfectly random or completely guided.
The mechanisms of social inter-dependence.
4. Building upon the concept of a "biological heritage".
The anthropoid species'.
A need for excellent parental behaviour.
Trying to rear children "by the book".
Emotional mechanisms between parents and off-spring.
The ability to give and receive trust.
Unraveling the mechanisms of a developing personality.
A continuously varying mix between protection, affection, stimulation and
discipline.
Mechanisms playing a role during an increase in population density.
The internal "frictions" of competitive strife.
A static population, and its internal dynamics.
Intra-species predation.
The stampede into a leaderless panic.
The mass-migration.
Limitations of the nomadic way of life.
Rising competitive pressures and tensions.
The inhibition of intra-species predation by "recognition
mechanisms".
When recognition mechanisms fail to operate adequately.
The mechanisms of "cultural divergence" between human groupings
interfere with natural recognition mechanisms.
In a cultural sense, we have become differentiated into widely divergent
"species`".
Man has shaken-off his natural predators, except for a few, stubborn,
pathogenic micro-organisms.
The background of the contradictory trends in man's personality.
Why human beings are willing to explore the possibilities of cooperation and
social integration.
The break-through of the "hierarchical order".
5. The phenomena of "dispersion" and
"territoriality".
Territoriality may be a temporary attitude.
The tendency towards an equi-distant dispersion and territoriality can be
mitigated by the mechanisms of hierarchical ordening.
The need for "escape mechanisms".
The transition from dominance to leadership.
Social integration around the family nucleus.
Dominance, and the evolution of caring and protective instincts.
A balance of interests.
The "sense of justice".
Occupying a position on the basis of individual merit.
The "position at birth".
Inherited social positions, and the sense of justice.
Hierarchical stratification is based on an essential fluidity of the
hierarchical position, based on the quality of personal abilities.
The polarisation between a ruling elite and an oppressed majority.
A complex mosaic of groupings and sub-groupings.
The limitations of natural leadership.
Favouritism, and its disruptive effects on social harmony.
6. Defusing social tensions with just and far-sighted regulatory
mechanisms.
A stroke of genius; the concept and implementation of a contract of
"essential equality".
The problem of knowing everyone in a large-scale social environment.
Essential equality implies, also, the will-power, and the determination, to
squash parasitic or exploitative behaviour.
Our "heroes".
Factors that facilitate the growth of large and complex societies.
The effects of efficient task-specialisations.
Cellular specialisations in form and function.
A difficult balancing-act, necessary to preserve the conditions of essential
equality.
Special-interest groupings and their fragmenting influence upon society.
The phenomenon of "inflation".
An analysis of social and economic factors in a large and affluent society.
We all "feed" the large corporations, because we have become
dependent upon them.
We are democratic "big spenders".
The consequences of a dependence on a high level of consumption.
It is tempting to let the debt-load rise.
A high level of vulnerability.
7. Natural parallels with the trappings of an affluent life-style.
The dependence on a "job".
Fiscal, physical and psychological dependencies.
A number of other dependencies.
The benefits of becoming more versatile and more broadly skilled.
We are social beings, be it, primarily, "small-scale".
Neurotic dependencies.
Emotions do not constitute the "highest" forms of human behaviour.
The conditions that are necessary for a superb performance.
The emergence of a "supra-individual unit".
The attitudes of "symbiosis".
A balance between contribution and reward.
Measuring productivity.
Incentives and existential anxieties
8. A summary of what has been discussed.
All events, including those of the living organisation, depend on the internal
potentials of the participating elements, as well as the conditions and
circumstances in which these events take place.
Life is a series of on-going, largely complementary events.
Behavioural flexibility is a major tool in the search for viability for large
and complex organisms.
The cultural code, and the potentials of intelligent behaviour.
Man, the manipulator, became his own, most dangerous enemy.
A rudimentary anlage for social cooperation.
Mechanisms of stress.
The problems associated with a "closed society".
Attempts to slow-down the accumulation of privileges, power and wealth.
The judiciary.
We know more, now, about the requirements of individual and collective
viability, as well as the mechanisms of social decay.
The importance of our outlook on life.
Possibilities for a globally integrated social environment.
The many faces of justice.
A basic package of rights and obligations.
The doctrine of complete social transparence.
Using the same conceptual language.
Do we really want Peace and Justice, or, do we want to preserve an advantage or
a privilege.
We have to educate our leaders and aspiring leaders.
The benefits of a sober life-style.
The potential of creating nearly ever-lasting life for mankind on a carefully
managed planet earth.
.......