THE ORIGINS OF SEXUALLY ORIENTED BEHAVIOUR







A Study in Thought

sa062



by





Marius Heuff

Chapter 1

Content

A careful look at the title.
A long list of legitimate questions.
Are we stimulated by the promise of violence or sexual excitement?
The discussion as a "thing of beauty".
No chance to be "swept off your feet".
An outline of the topics to be discussed.

I hope, dear reader, that you excercise the good habit of reading first, carefully, the title of anything you are planning to read, and, I hope, that you take a few moments to think about this title, before you plunge into the text. I hope, that you ask yourself, whether or not it is worthwhile to read the text, after you have pondered the title.

Certainly, a title may give only a vague indication of what is going to come, and, it is therefore likely, that a critical reader, who is used to scrutinise carefully the validity of all reading material, will have a number of questions, after he or she has thought about the title of this discussion.

For example, you may want to ask me, what I had in mind when giving my essay this title. What is "sexually oriented behaviour"? "Is it all behaviour that has something to do with the sexual drive, or, are you going to discuss the various orientations we see in sexual behaviour? Are you going to talk about homosexuality between males, females, or both? Are you going to discuss all behaviour-patterns that have a basis in the sexual or reproductive instincts? Are there sharp borders, here, or, is nearly all behaviour, in one way or another, related to the sexual drive, or, at least, to the differentiation into male and female? If so, the title may mean, that you are going to touch upon nearly every form of human behaviour".

"What do you mean by "the origins of...". Are you going to limit yourself to the evolutionary development of sexual behaviour? Are you discussing only human sexuality, or, do you intend to review the biological origins of the sexual mode of reproduction in nature? Are you going to define, what the sexual mode of reproduction entails; why it arose; what advantages and disadvantages are associated with this type of reproduction, and, why all larger life-forms, without exception, show a sexual mode of reproduction, in spite of the fact, that, some multi-cellular organisms may contain both male and female organs as an example of true hermaphroditism, or bi-sexuality?".

Dear reader, you will acknowledge, that you could have asked a long list of legitimate questions, before you started to read the text, and, in case you did not ask these questions, I have asked them for you. "Is it really necessary or useful to start a discussion with such a long list of questions?", you ask. "Are we not better of plunging directly into a well-organised and lucid discussion, so that the reader has, in the end, a fairly clear idea about many or most of the questions that have been raised in this introduction? We will see during the reading of your text, what you are going to discuss. Why do you procrastinate? Get-on with the job and tell us what you have in mind"

This, dear reader, is precisely the problem a writer faces, because he may be deliberating, how to tackle a problem or a task he has set himself. He sees a variety of ways in which the task can be accomplished, and, if the results stray somewhat from the intended discussion, he can, of course, change the title.

Who knows when the title was "created". Perhaps, it was only a "summary idea", placed at the head of a text that may have arisen around a variety of ideas, on a number of occasions. In this case, or, I should say, in the writing techniques I have adopted, I use, indeed, the title as a focal point for my thoughts, and, therefore, it was possible to open this discussion with a series of questions centered around an existing title.

True, very few readers will go through such an excercise of contemplating a title, in order to see, whether or not it is possible to gauge the contents of a discussion. Few people will consciously ask themselves, whether or not something is worth reading, because the reason, why they pick-up a book or read a work in the first place, indicates, that, somehow, the decision has already been made to read, or, at least, a decision has been made to give it a try. Perhaps, someone has read something about the book. The reader proceeds, then, not so much with the idea to scrutinise any possible correlation between the title and the text, but, with the intention to examine, whether or not the book as a whole lives-up to the expectations and impressions that have been created.

I know, how one usually comes to read, but, I like to make a plea for a more critical approach to reading. Let us ask ourselves more questions about any reading material, regardless, of the type of literature we have in hand. Are we picking-up a book, because our interests and appetites have been stimulated by clever advertising techniques, or, are we reading, because we hope to find a "good book"; a story, or, even, a discussion that is honest, well done, carefully written and thought-out, or, are we being taken for a ride; are we stimulated by the promise of violence and sexual excitement?

Indeed, do we like to think about what we read? Do we appreciate good craftsmanship, or, are we a reader who wants to be "swept along"; not necessarily into a morass of primitive emotions, but, are we a person who wants to be "entertained" rather than stimulated to thoughtful reflections. If we want to be entertained, we identify immediately with the characters, and, our attention is then captured by the presentation of what is happening. We are, then, a complete "captive" of the writer; we may love his work, or hate it, but, we can not really say, why. We do not know, how our attention has been captured. We can only say, that it was a good book, because we "could not put it down".

This is by far the most common form of readership, and, I am not suggesting that it is wrong. Anyone, who likes to read fiction must have the ability to "let oneself go", but, I am advocating, also, a more critical form of readership. The world of thought, as well as the art of the discussion, will always remain a "closed book", unless we learn to think a little for ourselves. We have to learn the art of evaluating something critically, be it a work of art or a thoughtful opinion, and, we should not just stammer; "I like this, or, I do not like that". We should be able to reason and argue, why we feel the way we do, and, we should be able to substantiate the opinions and judgements we have formed.

An essay is, primarily, such an exercise in discussing or evaluating a series of aspects, view-points, or, a number of facts and reality perceptions. In a discussion, we do not merely "present the facts", but we "work" with them. We juggle and arrange them, until they fit into a lucid, yet personal point of view. Certainly, a discussion is a personalised perception of reality. It is an opinion, or, rather, it constitutes a series of opinions and judgements, and, the art of writing a good discussion lies in the ability to transform it into a "thing of beauty"; at least, for a few people.

Hopefully, some people will be able to follow, faithfully, the twists and turns of the thoughts of a philosopher, and, hopefully, they will, here and there, experience a "flash of recognition", where, suddenly, the presented point of view is recognised as exceptionally truthful or clear.

In order to make such flashes of recognition possible, the reader must have developed, at least, subconsciously, a series of anticipations about the conclusions, ideas, concepts or mental images one is going to encounter. To help the formation of such anticipations that are fairly sharply delineated and reveal a clear idea about what to expect, I recited this list of questions.

I hope, that you have, indeed, at least, a few expectations about what is going to come. You will have realised, by now, that this is going to be strictly an intellectual and philosophical discussion, and, let us make it clear, that, any "expectations" about what to find, will, indeed, have to be limited to a series of ideas, concepts and view-points. There is certainly no chance to be "swept off your feet" by an emotional or exciting stimulus. If you are going to be "excited" about what you read, it will be a flash of recognition, based upon a sense of agreement with the ideas that have been brought to the fore.

Let us outline, in broad terms, the intentions of this essay. Indeed, I want to concentrate, first of all, on the evolutionary aspects of sexual behaviour. There are fundamental concepts at stake, here, and, we can not discuss or understand, adequately, either, the concepts of natural selection, or, the mechanisms of sexuality itself, unless we spend some time clarifying the nature of living organisms, their adaptative requirements, as well as the possibilities provided by the presence of a "gene-pool" with successive "spectra" of actualised or living members.

Then, we will trace, somewhat more in detail, the patterns of sexual or reproductive behaviour, as they take place in the higher animals, especially, the species' that are close to the human species. We will emphasise, here, the existence of a strong "biological heritage" of instincts and drives, which has become part of the human genetic make-up. After this "biological introduction", we will discuss the many feelings and emotions we may or may not be aware of, and, we will discuss the influence of the sexual differentiation into male and female upon our psychological make-up. We will discuss the cultural traditions, as well as the biological determinants; the battle between the sexes, and the contemporary drive towards an equal role for men and women. We will discuss, in some detail, the behaviour-patterns of people, especially, in the attitudes that are characterised as "male chauvinism" and "women's liberation", and, we will discuss, in general terms, the mechanisms of sexual attraction.

We should discuss, perhaps, fairly briefly, why, under certain circumstances, the normal orientation, or "polarity", between male and female is disturbed, and, why there are, in human as well as in animal behaviour-patterns, occasions or incidences, where the line of sexual attraction is oriented towards the same sex. Finally, we hope to discuss, broadly, the relationships between ethical or moral principles on the one hand, and, patterns of behaviour that are, in one way or another, related to our sexuality.

This leads, not only, to a wide discussion about the need for equal opportunities in career, prestige and income for the members of both sexes, but, we will also discuss the questions of abortion on demand, family planning and contraceptive techniques, as well as the aspects of parental care and sexual fidelity. This, in a nutshell, is the scope of the discussion we hope to present under the title; the origins of sexually oriented behaviour.

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Chapter 2

Content

A look at cellular mechanisms of reproduction.
Renewal of the "elan vital".
No evidence for "ageing processes" in cells that reproduce a-sexually.
Consequences of a severely competitive situation.
Circumstances never remain exactly the same.
Speculative images from a primordial protoplasmic past.
A number of cell-families.
The Oxygen Revolution; the first pollution crisis.

Let us look for a moment at the single cell as it multiplies by duplicating its genetic or regulatory machinery, followed by a division of its protoplasm and cell-membrane, and rounded-off by a "growth", or enlargment, of the two "halves" into cells that are in all aspects identical to the cell, before it divided.

It is, indeed, remarkable, that this process of cellular division gives rise to two identical cells, which have again an equal tendency and capability to grow, enlarge and multiply. Apparently, the process of cellular division does not give rise to cells that belong to different "generations". We do not see any distinction between parent and off-spring, and this process of "mitotic division", or a-sexual duplication, gives both cells a renewed vitality; a renewed elan to grow, metabolise and be active.

Indeed, this is a remarkable occurrence, and, we should look at these mechanisms in an overall perspective, without trying to describe, in detail, the actual chemical processes that are taking place, and, which may be responsible for this phenomenon of "re-juvenation". I believe, that there is no precise scientific answer, as yet, why this process of cellular division gives rise to a process of re-juvenation, but, then, do we really know why a cell "gets old"?

We know, that a cell seems to slow-down somewhat, after a period of active metabolism. If a cell does not multiply, it may accumulate some waste-products, and, its biochemical reactions slow-down. The cell becomes less elastic, more fragile, and, it is less able to withstand stress or to adapt quickly to changing circumstances. These are general characteristics that have been obtained, primarily, from the phenomena we can study in cells of large, multi-cellular organisms, including the human body. In the multi-cellular organism, many, if not most cells have become highly specialised and inter-dependent upon each other. These specialised cells have lost, almost without exception, the ability to reproduce themselves, and, this is the reason, why we can study the "ageing mechanisms" in these cells.

In the world of uni-cellular life, we do not notice the processes of ageing, because the organism is, either, successful and multiplies, or, it is destroyed and ingested by another life-form. Besides, the uni-cellular organism is, by definition, an independently living entity, in spite of the fact, that it requires a certain environment in order to survive. A single cell has, often, a measure of mobility, even, if it is a rather passive mobility, being swept, here and there, by currents of the watery environment. The cells are certainly not bound to each other in the spatial relationships that characterise the existence of multi-cellular organisms.

During a-sexual cellular division, the key regulatory substances that determine the functional and structural cohesion of the cell, have to be duplicated, before they can be separated into two equal clumps, or concentrations, of regulatory or genetic material. These accumulations of genetic material can then act as a nucleus for the organisation of a full-fledged cell. After this process has progressed to a certain point, physical or physico-chemical mechanisms carry-out a constriction of the parent cell, leading, eventually, to a complete division into two, completely equal "daughter cells".

This process of duplicating the genetic material and the presumably random distribution of "old" and "duplicated" genes between the two halves of the dividing cell, or, rather, the two nuclei of the new cells, is responsible for the fact that no essential differences exist between these two "new" cells. The parent cell is divided, so to speak, equally between the two daughter cells, and, the fact, that a whole new process of protoplasmic organisation has started from scratch, after each "heap" or clump of genetic material has moved to opposite sides of the parent cell, may be sufficient to explain, why a renewed biochemical vitality has been introduced.

Let us emphasise the fact, that, actively dividing cells within the multi-cellular organism show little or no evidence of the ageing processes that take place in the more specialised and non-dividing cells of the multi-cellular organism, and, we do not have to concern ourselves, therefore, with the problems of toxic or harmful waste-products, which may have to be divided over the daughter cells. It seems safe to say, that, in such a mitotic or a-sexual division of cells, the "old" and the "new", so far as genetic materials and existing protoplasmic structures is concerned, are divided equally between the two newly formed cells, and, the process of structural and functional re-organisation that occurs with the emergence of a "directing" nucleus, is sufficient to maintain a level of vitality that can give rise, again, shortly, perhaps, in a few hours time, to another mitotic cellular division.

Such a lineage of single cells seems to be immune from the problems of ageing and natural death, but, their dependence upon a continuous cycle of cellular division, links success, inevitably, to the pressures of over-population. Quickly, the number of new cells coming into existence is balanced by a number of dying cells, because some cells are, for one reason or another, unable to sustain themselves in such a severely competitive environment.

We see, then, that cells are always getting into a severely competitive situation, because the population keeps growing, until a balance is reached between the number of cellular deaths and new-cell formations. The question is this; in a population, where each cell is identical to each other, what determines, who dies and who lives? Minute differences in the availability of "food", such as a source of energy and suitable building-blocks, or, the accumulation of toxic waste-products in the immediate environment or within the cellular protoplasm itself, may be of great importance in deciding this question.

If we study a colony of bacteria, multiplying on a special "dish" that contains contains their "food" or essential nutrients, we see, how such a colony rapidly becomes bigger, until, in the center, the accumulation of waste-products and the exhaustion of nutrients, leads to a mass starvation and death of nearly all the bacteria. These mechanisms lie behind the trend of all species' to "spread out" and search, continuously, for new territories to sustain themselves, or for new ways to find a possibility to exist.

Circumstances never remain exactly the same, and, we see, how a cell, or, a lineage of cells, finds, "somehow", the ability to vary its response in the way it organises its metabolic activities and copes with more difficult circumstances. Such a cell with a variety of "organisational or regulatory possibilities" has a large range of adaptations at its disposal, and, it has found, thereby, an advantage over cells that do not have a measure of behavioural variability.

As we have discussed on previous occasions, it may well be, that the single cell arose as a "bud" from the primordial protoplasm. These blobs of sequestered protoplasm would "bud-off" from the primordial sea of protoplasm and seek possibilities of existence in the fringe areas or the periphery of the protoplasmic primordium. Here, conditions would become just a little too difficult or too harsh for the protoplasmic primordium to extend itself, but with the help of a cellular membrane, a small cluster or clump of such protoplasm, may have, by lucky accident, a slight advantage to "survive" in such a fringe area; at least, it may survive for a while.

We assume, that, most of these "buds" eventually perish without having reached the ability to reproduce themselves. Such abilities are present, however, in the fully formed, contemporary cell. Before the cell became so specialised, or, rather, so complete, (with all the necessary machinery to perpetuate itself, generation after generation), we may visualise, that, many "buds" would fuse again with the protoplasmic primoridum, after a period of "floating freely" in the fringe areas.

It is also reasonable to postulate, that every "bud" was again a little different. While each bud must have, at least, a somewhat similar range of possibilities in order to make a period of survival outside the protoplasmic primordium possible, we see, that a "spectrum of possibilities" arises, if we look at the entire population of buds that found a limited possibility of existence in those fringe-areas surrounding the protoplasmic primordium.

We may speculate a little further, and, we see the possibility, that a bud, after having floated freely in the protoplasmic fringe-area, may fuse again with the "mother protoplasm", and, after having "renewed" its machinery or absorbed a few additional protoplasmic elements, it could again embark upon a period of existence as a freely floating bud.

I am emphasising these speculative images, because they give us, first of all, a "feeling" for this transition period between the biochemical evolution that took place as a protoplasmic primordium, and, the single cell as we know it today. The idea, that, over a long period of time, vast quantities of buds must have tried to find a possibility to exist, seems a more plausible picture than the concept, that, suddenly, a fully independent cell arose from this vast protoplasmic primordium.

The other reason for emphasising these speculative images, is the likelyhood that a number of different cellular entities originated from this protoplasmic primordium. The cells, or cell-families, that arose, eventually, and formed the origin of all living existence as we know it today, were not a single cell-type, but, they constituted, in all probability, a large family of cells, which shared, to a remarkable degree, the regulatory mechanisms, as well as the biochemical reaction-patterns, which made cellular life possible, but, at the same time, there must also have been a remarkable "variability in potentials" between one cellular lineage and another.

We have good scientific evidence to believe, that the first or most primitive cells to arise and perpetuate themselves, were quite different from the modern, fully developed and remarkably complex cell. Not only, did a significant evolution take place in cellular structure and organisation, especially, in regards to the nucleus, but, we also know, that the first living and successful cells did not have the respiratory pathways of oxygen metabolism as we know them today. These pathways of oxygen metabolism sustain nearly all modern, contemporary living existence, even, if they are not the only pathways of metabolism available to a cell.

In the original terrestial atmosphere, there was no oxygen. Oxygen was, initially, an unwanted waste-product that accumulated in large quantities into the atmosphere, until the mechanisms of the living organisation experienced their first, and, perhaps, most fundamental pollution crisis.

The mechanisms of the living organisation solved this problem of excessive oxygen contamination of the atmosphere by extending its metabolic machinery to a complementary cycle. In addition to the process of photo-synthesis, leading to the waste-product of oxygen, now, the break-down of organic material into its original components, became possible within the living cell, and, this process utilised oxygen and liberated the principle building-blocks of all organic materials; carbon-dioxide and water. The anabolic or "synthesising" metabolic processes had now been matched by a complementary cycle of "catabolic", or "break-down" metabolic processes, and, the accumulation of oxygen into the earth's atmosphere, was halted.

We know, now, that multi-cellular life only became possible, after this "Oxygen Revolution" had taken place. We are now so dependent upon our oxygen-supplies, and, as animals, we are so dependent upon the ability to break-down organic materials synthesised by other life-forms, that we find it difficult to visualise, how these earliest living cells were constructed, and, what sort of metabolic processes were taking place within them.

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Chapter 3

Content

A life-giving range of variability.
How to avoid being an exact copy of the parental generation.
Differentiations of the multi-cellular embryo.
The concept of a "gene-pool".
The "setting" of a "genetic press".
The influence of a constant "demand".
Differentiations of uni-cellular life-forms.
Dormant genetic potentials, or "anlage".
Specialisation, and the removal of "excess baggage".
Questions about the concept of "mutation" as a tool for evolutionary developments.
Finely flowing adaptations have no use for a "monkey wrench".
Mixing the possibilities provided by a genetic spectrum.
Sexual and a-sexual reproduction in the formation of a multi-cellular organism.

Let us come back to the uni-cellular organisms and imagine a group that has multiplied by division and has formed a colony of identical, but strongly competitive cells. Slight differences in the ability to utilise an energy-source, or, to resist a period of adversity, (such as conditions of toxicity or scarcity), may mean the difference between life and death. We see, therefore, that "variability", the ability to adapt to changing or varying circumstances, is rewarded with viability, or life, throughout the evolutionary history of the living organisation. Where does an organism get this range of variability from, and, specifically, how does a cell get its guiding and regulatory functions?

Let us make it clear, from the start, that the answers to such questions have to be tentative and speculative, because we do not know, exactly, how variability came-about; neither do we know much about the origins of regulatory or genetic structures. If we look at our contemporary concepts about the way the "gene" instructs the living organisation in a completely invariable way, we run into some difficulties of understanding, and, it becomes clear, that we have to refine our conceptual models, even, if the initial attempts to do so, are rather speculative.

Let us first look at the contemporary ideas that do make sense. We have, rightly, come to the conclusion, that the genetic code organises the functions of a cell in such a way, that the divergent metabolic processes remain a coherent and viable unit. In the concept of a multi-cellular organism, we emphasise the ability of the genetic code to guide and direct the development of a multi-cellular organism from a single, fertilised egg-cell to an adult organism.

Indeed, the emergence of a highly complex, but, at the same time, strictly coherent and integrated multi-cellular organism from a single, fertilised egg-cell, takes place as a series of events we still know little about, but, it seems safe to state, that a strictly organised and carefully timed sequence of "chemical organisers" is necessary to induce the differentiation and organisation of the "pluri-potential cells" of the early embryo into a remarkably differentiated structure of coherent organ-systems.

We know, that the gene-structures also regulate the metabolic functions of the cell throughout its existence, and, we see, therefore, that the genetic instructions of the cells in a multi-cellular organism carry, not only, instructions for the function of each cell in this multi-cellular community, but, they also regulate and guide the differentiation and special developments of each individual cell during the processes of embryogenesis.

Can we make a few general statements about these processes, in spite of the fact, that, most of the details are still cloudy and have not been worked-out? I think we can, even, if it is unusual and speculative to trace an overall picture, before many of the details have been sketched clearly. However, let us give it a try.

The totality of the genetic instructions, which constitutes this "total pool" of instructions carried by every cell of a multi-cellular organism, includes all the instructions necessary to differentiate a single, fertilised egg-cell into a fully completed, mature life-form. During the first phase of development, the multi-cellular organism is formed, together with its many functional and structural details, and, this process of embryogenesis occurs by virtue of a timed sequence of biochemical "inductor substances". These induce the embryonic cells in a particular area to develop in a specific manner.

During this process of differentiation, a sub-community of cells becomes a special organ, and, all the cells that are being formed by a mitotic, or a-sexual form of division, are also destined to become specialised cells, belonging to a particular organ or functional system. The "genetic press", so to speak, has now been "set" by the inductor substance, and, once it has been set, all its activities and further regulatory functions are centered around this particular mode of existence.

While we know, that, all the cells in the human body carry precisely the same genetic instructions, the various cellular communities have all been "set" into different modes, according to the specialised role these cell-groups are fufilling in their multi-cellular society. The range of variability has, therefore, been narrowed by this "inductive set", which occurred during embryogenesis. However, within this "inductive set", a large range of variability and adaptability is still possible and available.

An organ that is used a great deal, becomes large and strong, unless the demands upon it are excessive, because the organ may, then, become "exhausted". If an organ is under-utilised, it tends to remain small, and, certain specialised tissues, such as muscle cells, may actually wither-away, if they are not being used for any length of time.

Here again, the question arises; where does this range of variability come from, and, in particular, where do these genetic instructions come from, which allow for such a wide range of special cellular products and functions? Where does the ability come from to form muscle, skin, tendons, nervous or neural tissues, the eyes, ears and other special sense-organs? Where do these abilities come from? Do they develop during the long evolutionary experiment with a great variety of multi-cellular organisms, or, can we trace this ability to form specialised structures back to the realm of uni-cellular life, or, perhaps, even, the protoplasmic primordium itself?

Indeed, let us not concentrate on the great variety of fully developed organ-systems and specialised appendages of the multi-cellular life-forms, but, let us look at the functional differentiations that are already possible, and taking place, within the single cell; e.g. the ability to move, to react to a variety of stimuli, to transmit impulses, or, to form a variety of "protections", or "weapons", such as bony spicules, inorganic encrustations and other structural enhancements.

Let us look at the ability to ingest preformed materials, or, the ability to expel unwanted or toxic products, or "waste". We see, then, that all these specialisations are already represented in the incredible variety of uni-cellular existence. It seems reasonable to say, therefore, that the "anlage", (the origins and potentials for all the large, macroscopic differentiations which we can see in the realm of the multi-cellular life-forms), are already "represented" or foreshadowed in the single cell, and, we may have to look for the fundamental cause of developmental variety to this earliest period of the evolution of life; the protoplasmic primordium.

It seems logical to assume, that cellular life arose as a "family" of viable, single cells, which shared a number of basic metabolic pathways, but, they "inherited" from the protoplasmic primordium, also, a fairly large variety of regulators. By far the majority of these regulators would be dormant, and, perhaps, they would never participate in any function of a living cell, until the cell happens to come into a set of circustances that requires an adaptation into, or, the development of, a variety of biochemical and biological reaction-patterns that could be successfully regulated by this particular genetic instruction.

To carry such dormant genetic material from generation to generation may be somewhat like carrying "excess baggage", and, the genetic material is, therefore, subject to a tendency of being dropped, if, for many generations on end, it has not been utilised. At the same time, we may state, that, a gene or a genetic package of instructions that is frequently being called-upon to "perform", will be "strengthened"; it will become more agile, more refined and successful in its functions.

I realise, that the perceptive reader will frown, here, because I seem to introduce the concept, that the genetic structure can be influenced by "external circumstances"; by the "feed-back" of its inter-actions within the cell, while it is performing its regulating functions. This concept goes against the traditional but fundamental concept, that the essence of a genetic structure is "immune" from environmental influences. Do I challenge, here, these traditional concepts? It is necessary, therefore, to discuss this point more in detail.

I believe, that there is no fundamental shift away from the concept, that the function of a gene is to guarantee a "constant production process". A gene has to guarantee the similarity of a product from moment to moment. Any influence from the environment is, as a rule, a drastic, disastrous "mutation", or, a loosening of the genetic code, which interferes, quickly, with the ability to make viable "transcripts" of a part of its own code, or, a viable copy of the organism as a whole, which is dependent upon a transcription or duplication of the entire genetic code.

I do not want to suggest, that the "press" of a genetic instruction can change its product depending upon the presence or absence of a strong demand for its functions, but, there are many other variables and subtle factors at work. If a "genetic press" is frequently used, it becomes more efficient. It will respond quickly and smoothly to the signals that "turn it on or off", and, as we have discussed, before, under the heading of a "guided event", a frequent flow of events through a stystem gives rise to numerous opportunities to carry-out the required operation more smoothly and with less energy.

All these changes are dependent upon the level of "feed-back", or, upon the degree to which a "genetic press" is required to function, and, it is, therefore, erroneous to suggest, that there is no influence at all from the environment upon a genetic structure, and, especially, upon the way it functions. Certainly, the genetic press can be damaged by radiation, as well as a variety of chemical, thermal and mechanical influences, but, it seems highly unlikely, that such drastic changes, or "mutations", can account for the processes of natural selection and the evolution of finely adjusted, functional and structural features in an organism, or a species, that is adapting to changing circumstances.

The concept of evolution by mutation is too crude. In my opinion, it is unlikely to ever account for the smoothly flowing adaptations we see taking place in nature. I think, that we have, now, a much better concept to explain the smooth flow of adaptative changes. Nevertheless, the theory or concept of evolution by mutation shows our constant attempts at reconciling the static, rigid and unchanging features of the genetic code, with the evidence for natural evolution, characterised by a smooth adaptation of the genetic code to changing circumstances.

Where does this potential for change come from? How can we visualise a genetic function that maintains, on the one hand, its essential rigidity, safeguarding a biochemical function or product against change, while it allows, on the other hand, a gradual adaptation in structure and function over a number of generations? This difficulty is reconciled by the concept of a "genetic spectrum".

In order for a genetic spectrum of possibilities to work, we have to have a population of a single species, reflecting such a variability in its genetic potentials. If all members of a population are identical, the spectrum has to be necessarily confined to the range of variability that is present within each cell. The "total" gene-pool is, then, contained within each of the identical cells. However, if the "pool" extends over the entire species, we see a far greater possibility for variation, but, then, the off-spring can not come from a simple cellular division, but, there must be a method to "keep mixing" the genetic possibilities, represented by this spectrum that is spread-out over the entire species.

This need to mix, or, the need to obtain the benefits of a wider range of genetic variability, is the crux behind the phenomenon of the sexual mode of reproduction. Certainly, the reproduction of a complex multi-cellular society or organism is not possible, so far as we know, whithout the sexual mode. This sexual mode initiates the formation of a fertilised egg-cell, but, we should not forget, that the transition from one single fertilised egg-cell to a completely formed organism, takes place as a long series of a-sexual or mitotic divisions. Here, a specialisation of the cell-groups takes place because different parts of the cell-population of the embryo have been exposed to different chemical inductor-substances, and, they have acquired, therefore, a different "set", or "program" for their identical genetic codes.

Similarly, it would be erroneous to think, that the sexual mode of reproduction only developed with the emergence of the multi-cellular organism. Single cells also exhibit the phenomenon of "genetic exchange". These mechanisms are, on the one hand, a fore-runner of the much more elaborate processes of sexual procreation in the larger multi-cellular organisms, but, they may also reflect the speculative, pre-cellular budding mechanisms, which we have discussed above.

We are thinking, here, about the remarkable phenomenon, where certain uni-cellular organisms can form temporary protoplasmic bridges between each other. During this time an exchange of genetic material can take place. Perhaps, this phenomenon is fairly widespread, and, it is likely, that, many successful uni-cellular organisms or species' have found a way to tap the benefits that come with a species-wide "gene-pool", in order to retain, or obtain, this necessary element of variability that lets them adapt and survive.

We should elaborate the idea of a species-wide gene-pool, and, we should discuss the reasons, why the concepts of such a species-wide gene-pool have done much to clarify our understanding of the mechanisms of natural selection and the evolution of life.

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Chapter 4

Content

A definition of the gene-pool.
All cells of a multi-cellular organism have an identical genetic make-up.
Sub-dividing a species by evolutionary divergence.
Classification, and the selection of classifying criteria.
Splitting the genetic content in half.
A system of genetic back-up; dominant and recessive traits.
A very long ladder, with thousands of rungs.
Not all recessive traits are necessarily a disadvantage.
Why children from the same parents can be remarkably different.
Geographical barriers tend to "isolate" parts of a gene-pool.
A break in sexual compatibility.
How environmental factors influence the genetic make-up of a population; the phenomenon of "selective cropping".
The potential for developing or accentuating desirable features must be present.
A pool of dormant traits and potentials.
The phenomenon of "adaptative radiation", after an evolutionary break-through.
Major evolutionary innovations come from "stem animals".
"Genetic actualisation", and its consequences; a mechanism of environmental feed-back.
A biological introduction, and an emphasis on multi-cellular behaviour.

Let us define the gene-pool as the overall range of genetic instructions and possibilities for actualisation that are contained by all the living members of a species. Theoretically, these members can all participate in the reproductive processes, and, the gene-pool can, therefore, be "mixed" in an endlessly varied manner. However, how do we visualise this process of genetic mixing to take place, and, let us assume, that our attention is now virtually exclusively focussed on the multi-cellular species'.

We have indicated, that it is very difficult to visualise a successful mitotic or a-sexual reproduction of the multi-cellular organism as a whole, and, we see, therefore, that the next generation is "built-up" from a single, fertilised cell. Each multi-cellular society of cells, or organism, starts life as a single, fertilised egg-cell, and, the colony of billions of cells, forming together the multi-cellular individual, comes into being through mitotic or a-sexual cellular divisions during embryonic growth, as we have discussed above.

This colony of cells becomes a coherent anatomical and physiological unit as a result of cellular differentiations and the mechanisms of mutual inter-dependence. We still have only sketchy ideas about the exact mechanisms that play a role in organ-formation during embryogenesis, and, we also know little about the mechanisms that must be at work to keep the cellular community a strictly organised and coherent unit of existence.

Since all the cells of a multi-cellular organism originate from the same fertilised egg-cell, it is logical, that these cells all have an identical genetic "make-up", but, as we have discussed, during the process of cellular differentiation, a different genetic mode of operation is "set" during embryogenesis. Yet, each member of a species arises from a different fertilised egg-cell, and, each member represents, therefore, a colony of cells with a different genetic "imprint". In order to be genetically compatible, the range of variability between the living members of a species has to be kept within certain limits. This principle is easy to state, but, it would be much more difficult to describe, precisely, the factors that make a group of living organisms into a single species, and, which factors lead to a "break" in genetic compatibility, or a sub-division into a variety of differing species'.

We know, that, evolutionary diversity takes place because of the tendency to "sub-specialise" into a variety of related but separate species', and, we can classify many species' into groupings or families that can again be classified into larger groupings, according to certain common denominators or classifying principles. I am not an expert in such classifications, and, I do not intend to state, here, anything more than the bare principles.

The criteria for defining a single species are fairly simple, because, as long as the variants within a species do not lead to sexual incompatibility, we classify these variants as belonging to the same species. The construction of the much larger groupings is more arbitrary and open to debate, because it depends, in part, on the way we interpret the overall phenomena of evolution, and, in part, the constitution of a group of species' depends on the criteria we select for classification.

How do we have to visualise the evolution of the sexual mode of reproduction? How did the reproductive mechanisms of a living, fertilised egg-cell came about? We have seen, that the formation of protoplasmic bridges between single cells is a rather inefficient way to mix genetic material, but, perhaps, no other way is possible, or necessary, for these species'. To have to fuse, at least, partially, and, then, divide again, seems rather difficult and cumbersome for uni-cellular species', but this technique is nearly universally adopted by the multi-cellular organisms. Yet, here, the fusion of two cells into a fertilised egg-cell is accomplished by very specialised cells that have been precisely programmed for their role to fuse and start a complex series of a-sexual divisions, associated with the occurrence of timed sequences of specialised inductor substances, and the eventual reproduction of an organism that resembles, to a remarkable extent, both its parents.

Indeed, in the sexual mode of reproduction, there are two parents, selected randomly from the spectrum of living members, and, each parent contributes half the genetic material to its off-spring. This means, that the specialised sex-cells, before they fuse and give rise to a new organism, have to "halve" their genetic content. During a complex series of divisions that occur within the sex-organs of adult males and females, we see, that, at least, once, a crucially different division takes place, where the cells split their genetic content in half.

"How is it possible to split the genetic content in half? Does this mean that the genetic material is arbitrarily divided into two heaps? However, if one combines again two such heaps, how can we be sure, that all the essential elements are there, and, that none are missing, while others are unnecessarily duplicated?

Indeed, this is an important question, and the answer lies in the fact, that, normally, the full compliment of genetic instructions for a cell contains already a set of duplicates. This means, that each gene, each genetic instruction-package has a "double", or a "back-up", and the division into two equal heaps of genes, as we described in the formation of sex-cells, occurs in such a way that one of the doubles is chosen for each heap. Therefore, each heap contains a full complement of genetic instructions.

However, these "doubles" are not always real doubles. Sometimes, there is only one "good copy", and the other set of genetic instructions is rather weak, defective or under-developed. We speak, then, of a "recessive trait", while a "good set" of instructions is called a "dominant" trait. If a defective set is complemented by a good set, then, the organism functions without any obvious defects. However, during the processes of sex-cell formation, one of the sex-cells is going to get the "poor quality" set of instructions, while the other gets the good one. If such a sex-cell later combines with a sex-cell from the other parent and receives, again, a poor quality or recessive gene, then, the newly formed organism may be defective in one aspect or another, because it lacks a "good copy" for this particular package of genetic instructions.

Major defects are incompatible with life and will result in early fetal death, or severe birth defects that are not reproduced. These "lethal defects" remove themselves, therefore, from the gene-pool, because the defective organism does not contribute to the gene-pool. However, "minor" defects may well be compatible with life, and, they may also be propagated from one generation to the next, in particular, if the ability to reproduce has not been impaired by such a defect.

Here, we enter a wide field of congenital, inborn errors of metabolism, such as diabetes, haemophilia, cystic fibrosis, and many, many others. However, let us come back to the way a sex-cell forms. Because it gets only one of each set of duplicates, half the sex-cells may receive a "recessive trait", while the other half receives the dominant trait. Certainly, there are many traits that are "double dominant", and, all the sex-cells receive then a "good copy", while there are a number of double recessive traits that are, of course passed to all the sex-cells. Yet, even so, we should realise that a recessive feature does not necessarily mean an abnormality or a diseased form of existence. It may just mean the absence of a certain characteristic that would be manifested in the organism, if it had, at least, one dominant gene for this particular characteristic.

It is also important to realise, that the way this division takes place, is completely random. If we visualise the duplicates to be arranged like a very long ladder with many thousands of rungs, then, we can imagine, how the location of a dominant or recessive trait can take place, either on the left-hand, or on the right-hand side. The division in half, which is necessary for the formation of sex-cells, takes place by splitting the "ladder in half", so to speak, which ensures that one of each set is contained in the sex cell, while the other half goes to the other sex cell of the pair that is being formed.

Yet, the ladder is not "flat", but may be spiraled, and, the way in which dominant and recessive traits are located is completely random. If all the traits would be double dominants, there would, of course, be no variation between one-sex cell and its counter-part, but, since so many traits are made-up by a dominant-recessive pair, the sex-cells are all different. This is the reason, why a number of children from the same parents still show marked variations from one to the other.

Perhaps, it is erroneous to imagine, that all recessive traits are a disadvantage. It is more accurate to say, that, in many instances, the various combinations of dominant and recessive traits lead to a variety in anatomical and physiological features that are not necessarily diseases or abnormalities, but, just variations that can be beneficial for the purposes of adaptability.

I hope, that it is, indeed, clear why children from the same parents can still look remarkably different from each other, unless a twin has originated from the same fertilised egg-cell, and, we are all familiar with the remarkable similarities that are visible between identical twins.

The sexual mode of combining two halves of the genetic instruction patterns from different individuals or parents, preferable people who are not related to each other, gives rise to the possibility to "keep mixing" the genetic traits, and, in this way, the living generations of a species show a "spectrum of genetic variables". If a sexual combination occurs between closely related people, the chances to get double recessive or poor-quality traits "at the same place" in the genetic code, are quite strong, and, we have seen, that a double recessive trait can be disastrous. This is the reason, why offspring of related parents has a greater chance of being defective.

We have assumed, that this "genetic mixing" takes place over and through the entire spectrum of a species, but, we know, that this is often not the case. The actual process of genetic mixing is frequently much more limited, because a species may be spread over a wide territory, or, a varied geographical and climatic area. If there are geographical barriers, "isolating" various parts of the gene-pool of a species into separate populations, and, if different regions make varying demands upon the abilities and adaptative responses of the living members of a species, then, a "pull", or force, will be directed upon the evolution of this species, which will be different for the two, largely isolated communities. The two gene-pools, or, rather, the two, more or less sequestered parts of the same gene-pool of a single species begin to develop, then, into different directions, and, these differing developments may, eventually, lead to a break in sexual compatibility.

If this occurs, the break is permament, and mixing is not possible anymore, even, if the geograpical barriers would fall-away. If, however, the isolation or sequestration is less complete, we may see a variety of "racial" differences, but these differences can again disappear with a more complete sexual or genetic mixing. This is the situation for the human species, which has divided itself into a variety of races by virtue of the fact that it has spread-out widely over the globe, and, consequently, many parts of the gene-pool have become sequestered for long periods of time. However, the differences have never become so marked, that genetic mixing has become impossible, and, for this reason, the various human races, as well as the many differing regional features, still form one single human species.

Let us discuss the question, how a set of environmental circumstances or existential demands, acting over a long period of time upon a spectrum or part of a genetic spectrum, leads to changes in the structure and function of this genetic spectrum. We also have to ask ourselves, how these changes may, eventually, lead to a sub-division of the species and split it into several different species', in spite of the fact, that these species' may all have to live with the same geographical and climatological circumstances. This is the crux of evolutionary change and the mechanism of natural selection, is it not?

We can see a variety of mechanisms at work. Some of them are fairly "certain", in the sense, that we have good scientific evidence for their occurrence, but others are more speculative. The reason, why we have to introduce somewhat speculative ideas lies in the fact, that the "known" mechanisms give us a remarkably incomplete picture of what is going-on. We have seen that this picture is so incomplete, that many people still visualise a random process of genetic changes, or "mutations", (e.g. under the influence of radiation, cosmic rays or other grossly damaging influences), in order to explain the phenomenon of evolutionary adaptation.

However, the results we see from such mutations are always so gross, and, they result, invariably, in such crippling abnormalities, that most of these changes are incompatible with life or procreation. For these reasons, I find it extremely unattractive to imagine such a crude "monkey-wrench" concept in our attempts to understand the essence of evolutionary change, just as I find it unacceptable to think in terms of a "primordial soup" leading, somehow, to a single cell, without any attempt to sketch, at least, a tentative picture, what such a primordial protoplasm would have looked like, and, how it could have led to a series of evolutionary changes making the emergence of an independently living and pro-creating cell, at least, plausible.

The concept of a "spectrum" gives us a better start to comprehend the smooth adaptative changes of evolutionary developments, because it is fairly clear, that a species with such a spectrum, together with a high mortality rate and a reasonably quick turn-over from one generation to the next, is able to change the composition of this genetic spectrum.

If, e.g. only a small segment of the living generations participates in the processes of pro-creation, we note, that the next generation has already a marked preponderance of those qualities, attributes or genetic instructions, which made the parental generation so successful. After all, the next generation comes only from the most successful segment of the previous generation, whenever the naturally selective criteria are at work in full force. In this way, it is possible to shift the accent or composition of the spectrum, quickly, towards the potentialities or features that are desirable, while those members who do not possess these features in sufficient quantities, die prematurely, and are unlikely to contribute to the processes of pro-creation. We see, therefore, how, by "selective cropping", certain features out of a large range of possibilities can be brought to the fore, and, we see, how these features can play, quickly, a dominant role in the make-up and behaviour of a particular species.

Yet, we assume in this imagery, that the potential for selecting the desirable features was already present, before evolutionary pressures started to activate these features and elevate them into a status of prominence and priority. This is quite true, and, while we have, so far as I know, little scientific evidence for the concept of a large pool of "dormant features", or, features that are present, only, as a genetic "anlage", without having been shaped into a specific genetic trait, I think, that this concept of a pool of dormant features that can be activated by evolutionary pressures, is a more viable, more realistic, as well as a more satisfying idea, compared to the rather crude mechanisms of "mutation".

The question arises, again, where this pool of dormant features comes from, and, we may, with some justification, point to the fact, that all the features of organ-formation, or anatomical differentiation and physiological specialisation, which we see in such a great profusion on a macroscopic scale throughout the realm of multi-cellular life, have already been fore-shadowed, "in principle", in the single cell, as well as in the variety of uni-cellular species'.

You may think, that it is a "neat trick" to shift the burden of answering the question where the potential of variability comes from, way back to the nebulous origins of cellular life, and, you may find such an approach less than satisfying. However, apart from the evidence we have for the fact, that, indeed, the single cell does have a great variety of specialised "organelles", as well as a large variety of capabilities and specialised functions, (which are later mirrored and elaborated by multi-cellular existence), there is another interesting and well documented observation pointing to the reality of the concept of a "pool of dormant traits or capabilities".

Capabilities or potentials can be actualised, or, activated into an active function, over the time-span of a number of generations, whenever environmental pressures favour the development of such traits. However, we also remind ourselves of the well known fact, that, evolutionary changes take place, primarily, and, certainly, in their most fundamental form, in species' that are relatively "unspecialised".

Species' that are highly specialised, or, have been highly adapted to a particular set of circumstances or specific "ecological niche", lose, by and large, the ability to undergo major adaptative changes. The range of adaptative change becomes increasingly more narrow as a species becomes more specialised. I think, that most biologists and experts in this field will agree with this generalised statement. The question is why. Why does it matter, whether or not a species is highly specialised? As long as there is a high mortality rate, a fairly quick turn-over of generations, as well as a factor that encourages "mutations", we should be able to see adaptative changes from any sort of species.

This, however, is not the case. Certainly, those species' that are under a great deal of pressure, with a high mortality and a quick genetic turn-over, can show a quick evolutionary spurt, but, others, more specialised, but otherwise subjected to the same presures and circumstances, do not show any signifcant adaptative changes. They certainly do not show any evidence for an "adaptative radiation" of new but related species', and, their population dwindles and becomes, eventually, extinct.

An "adaptative radiation" means, a sudden break-through with a major evolutionary innovation, such as e.g., the ability to carry the embryos inside a womb and bear the offspring "alive". Such an evolutionary break-through leads to a quick differentiation of a "stem species" into a variety of sub-species', filling-up ecological niches that have suddenly come "within reach".

However, we see the ability to develop such a major evolutionary innovation and adaptation only in "stem species`". These are species' that are not particularly specialised, and, these species' were, often, hidden in obscurity, because they did not excel in any particular feature. Their evolutionary "precariousness" of existence was, indeed, mostly the result of pressures from other, more successful, larger or more specialised species'. These specialised species' flourished, for a while, in particular, when their even more specialised predators had become extinct, or were severely reduced in numbers.

The specialised species has a tendency to become less prominent under severe existential presures. Its numbers are reduced, and the extent of its territory is reduced as well. Such a specialised species becomes, almost invariably, quietly extinct, without giving birth to a major differentiation in the form of another species, or a "radiation of species`".

This phenomenon can be explained, if we are willing to entertain the concept of a large "dormant pool" of genetic potentials. We postulate, then, that specialised species' have "used up" a large portion of this dormant pool during the process of adaptative change, and, they have ultimately jettisoned all "excess genetic baggage". They are, then, precisely adapted to a particular ecological niche, but, a radical change in this niche, means extinction.

The "stem species`", those species' that are closer to the main stem or main branches of the evolutionary tree, still possess a fairly large portion of non-actualised or dormant genetic potential, and, we visualise, that, slowly, under severe naturally selective pressures, a part of these extremely varied but dormant potentials can become activated or actualised.

In addition, we must discuss an imagery that is somewhat more controversial and reflects the possibility, that there is a feed-back from the environment upon genetic structures.

During the process of "genetic actualisation", a genetic trait is "awakened" from its dormant or rudimentary state. This process takes place over a number of generations, and, the environmental conditions and existential requirements can shape, to a large extent, the details of such an awakened genetic trait. Since the "genetic press" is, so to speak, only in a "design stage", specific requirements can shape the potential of this genetic press into a specific function that is required by the emerging species. These functions determine then, together, the organisation, the behaviour, the anatomy and physiology of the members of this particular species.

I realise, that this will be a controversial suggestion, but, such an imagery answers, at least, to some extent, how an "anlage", present as a potential in the single cell, long before the evolution of multi-cellullar life, can, eventually, be transformed into a highly complex, highly organised and extensively elaborated trait. The original potential, encoded, perhaps, in a few molecules, has now been extended into a complex regulatory body, requiring thousands, or, perhaps, millions of molecules to be encoded in its entirety.

However, we do not want to explore the possibilities of this imagery any further in this essay, because we have to move-on to the many other aspects we promised to cover in the introduction. Let us hope, that this part of the essay may function, adequately, as a "biological introduction". We have now an idea, why the sexual mode of reproduction arose; what existential and evolutionary advantages this method brings, and, why it has become the exclusive mechanism to initiate the origin of a multi-cellular organism. We have also seen, how the growth and differentiation of such a sexually initiated organism, depends on the enormous proliferation from a single cell to a colony of many billions of cells. This part of the evolution of a multi-cellular individual takes place through a process of a-sexual division, which is identical to the reproduction and proliferation of uni-cellular organisms.

Let us now focus upon the question, how a multi-cellular organism can be "induced" to behave in such a way, that a union between sex-cells occurs, leading to a fertilised egg-cell. We will see, that, natural evolution had to "program" very specific and often sterotyped behaviour-patterns into the repertoir of the living members of a species, before the continuation of a species would be secure. We also want to mention, here, that sexually oriented behaviour has no immediate existential benefits for the members who participate in it, and, this absence of existential benefits, as well as the often considerable burdens of danger and energy-expenditure associated with mating, as well as the period of pregnancy and parental care, explain, why this type of behaviour has to have a very strong, instinctive motivation, indeed.

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Chapter 5

Content

A brief excursion into the realm of plant life.
An emphasis on quantity in the mechanisms of reproduction.
A look at reproductive mechanisms of the fishes.
The trend towards a safer reproductive environment.
The chores of successful parental behaviour for bird-species'.
Precisely programmed and adapted behaviour-patterns.
A rather elaborate ritual preceding the mating sequence.
Is loyalty an instinct, or a "free choice"?
Behavioural flexibility, and the "imprint" of exemplary behaviour.
Taking the element of "chance" away from the mechanisms of reproduction.

Before we concentrate on the animal life-form and the large variety of behaviour-patterns that are based on the ability to move, we should review, briefly, the vegetative, multi-cellular organisms that function as plants, shrubs and trees. These are non-mobile, photo-synthesising colonies of cells. The absence of mobility is understandable, when we review the mode of existence that has been explored by plant-life, but, it has not made the sexual mode of propagation impossible. Obviously, the mixing of genetic information and the formation of a wide spectrum has such overwhelming advantages, that all the large, multi-cellular organisms, including the vegetating life-forms, rely upon the sexual mode of reproduction for their survival as a species.

However, if the spread of sex-cells is limited, the stationary organisms form, often, separate male and female sex-organs, which can then secure procreation, until such time that the clustering of a number of plants and trees of the same species, allows the possibility to mix the sex-cells of a larger population.

As we have seen, the sex-cells of either male or female are all different, because the separation of the unequal duplicates is a chance-happening. This means, that sex-cells of the male and female type, even, if they come from the same organism, still produce an off-spring that has a different genetic make-up compared to the parent. Certainly, the spectrum is much greater, when the sex-cells come from widely different locations, because they represent, then, a much broader segment of the spectrum of the species than can be contained within the "pool" of a single pair.

Vegetating or immobile forms of life use a variety of "tricks" to scatter their sex-cells widely; e.g. by making them susceptible to be blown far-away by the wind, and, at the same time, nature developed a variety of techniques to make it possible for these cells, or, specialised little clusters of cells, to survive a lengthy period of adverse conditions.

Even so, the odds are against the chances of procreation. The chance-encounter with a sex-cell of the same species but opposite sex, as well as the haphazard chance to find a suitable soil to start growing, together with the frequent predation by animals feeding upon the food-content that is included to make an early start of the plant embryo possible, all these factors make it logical, why there is such an emphasis on enormous quantities in order to improve the chances of survial and procreation.

In a more recent evolutionary development, certain plants and trees have "made use" of the presence of insects to carry-out the genetic mixing for them, and, we all know, that bees and other insects are atracted to the flowers with their bright colours and alluring nectar in order to make them go from plant to plant, pollinating as they go along. We do not want to go into details, here, because the biologists and botanists have given us beautifully detailed studies and descriptions of these processes, and, we want to emphasise, only, how nature, throughout the realm of the multi-cellular, living organisation, uses a sexual mode of reproduction in order to keep the genetic spectrum of the species as large and varied as possible.

The emphasis on quantity to compensate for the hazardous method of spreading sex-cells, is reflected in many animals as well. In a way, many species' of fish behave like vegetating species', in spite of the fact, that the factor of mobility allows male and female to spawn together and "select" a place, where their egg-cells have, at least, a chance to survive. The range of methods different species' use for procreation in the realm of animal life, is very large, indeed, and, I am not familiar with many of the details of this vast field. I will not even attempt to summarise this enormous field of knowledge and information, and, I like to limit myself to enumerating the common denominators of the various procreational patterns, in order to trace a picture of gradual change towards those patterns we are more familiar with.

It seems safe to state, that, species' that are less precise in their ability to ensure fertilisation under suitable and protected circumstances, have to rely upon the production of a great quantity of sex-cells in order to enhance the chances of fertilisation and implantation in a suitable soil or environment. These chances have to be large enough to secure a continuation of the species. However, the production of such huge quantities of sex-cells is a burden, and, we see, indeed, how a large percentage of the metabolic activities of plants, trees and animals is directed towards the preparation of such a large quantity of sex-cells, together with their protective capsules which may contain "emergency rations". Of course, man, as well as many other animal species', has greatly profited from the existential needs of many, large vegetating life-forms, as anyone can affirm, who realises, that fruits, berries, nuts and grains are all in the service of procreating their own species, rather than in the service of feeding man.

Many animal life-forms that dwell in a watery enviroment, be it the sea or the fresh-water lakes and rivers, show a process of fertilisation that is less chancy, because there is the possibility to bring sex-cells in close contact with each other during the spawn. However, the environment is still so hazardous and full of predators, and, the cells are so vulnerable, that, still, large quantities are needed to off-set the very high mortality rate of fertilised egg-cells.

When we look at reptiles and birds, as well as many insects, we see, that the process of fertilisation takes place inside the body with the help of special mating or copulating organs, which give these cells again an extra measure of protection. Now, a further period of growth or a mechanism of protection can take place, like the formation of a calcareous shell, allowing the egg-cell a better chance of survival. However, the most important innovation and enhancement of survival came, when the parental generation began to assume a measure of responsibility for guarding and incubating their eggs.

Again, let us emphasise, that this type of protective or sheltering behaviour does not arise suddenly. In a way, the "anlage" for protective behaviour has always been present, regardless, whether we see it in the protective leaves a plant forms around its sex-cells, or the instinct to find some sort of a nest or hiding place by spawning fish.

If we take a gigantic evolutionary leap to the birds, we see a highly developed and prolonged period of parental protection and care for the young. This period of protective behaviour extends to the time after the young have hatched. In many bird species', successful patterns of behaviour ensure the production of a healthy offspring and a younger generation, which is, eventually, able to take over the arduous task of migrating and being good parents themselves. This is such a complex task, that it requires the close cooperation between male and female to bring it off, successfully. After mating, a suitable nest has to be built. After the eggs have been laid, male and female must alternate the task of incubating them, while the other gets something to eat, unless you want to get along without anything to eat for the entire incubation period, like the three weeks fast of penguins.

After the young are hatched, they need to be fed, protected, and, eventually, they have to be stimulated to fly and fend for themselves. When these absorbing tasks have been completed, the time has come to migrate to a warmer climate, and the youngsters have to be able to participate in this arduous, taxing and energy-consuming journey. We rarely realise, how much energy it takes per unit of body weight, to fly, let alone, to fly for many thousands of miles within a few weeks or a few months.

We tend to look with a measure of puzzlement at the fidelity that exists between the male and female of many bird species', and, sometimes, there is the implication, that such behaviour is a moral example for us, human beings. However, let us emphasise, here, once again, that morality is the ability to make a conscious or deliberate choice, for or against the interest of oneself or someone else, and, since no animal has developed the ability to make such a conscious choice, we can not speak of morality or a moral choice.

The birds are species', whose behaviour has been precisely programmed by their genetic codes, and, it is more accurate to see the apparent fidelity, or pairing for life, as an existential necessity that springs from the difficult and elaborate tasks to rear a good, healthy and adequately prepared new generation. Birds do not "know", that they mate for life, neither do they know, why they have the instinct to mate, to stay together, to keep the eggs warm, to build a nest, or to feed their young. We visualise these behavioural-patterns to be the result of pre-programmed instructions that are unfolded, or "actualised", with the formation and maturation of the organism, and, these instinctive behaviour patterns are "released", or set into motion, whenever an appropriate stimulus has been received, at the appropriate time.

In the processes of embryogenesis, we see that the carefully timed production of inductor-substances induces cell-populations to go into one specialised form of development or another. Similarly, we see, that, during the pocesses of maturation, but, also, throughout many of the cyclically organised periods of life, an animal's organism becomes sensitive to a particular set of stimuli.

During Spring, when it is mating and nest-building time, the animal's organism "becomes ready" to be stimulated by an appropriate stimulus. This may start as a rise in the level of sensitivity to the lure, or, the attention-getting behaviour of the opposite sex, and, we see in many species' a rather elaborate "ritual" preceding the actual mating sequence. We assume, that such a courtship ritual is designed to harmonise or synchronise the behaviour-patterns of the sexual partners in order to ensure, that mating takes place at the right moment, optimising the chances of fertilising the egg-cells. A successful courtship is, then, followed by the month long sequences of nest building, incubation, and bringing-up the off-spring.

If the phenomenon of sexual fidelity and an attitude of loyalty between mates is the result of a "blind instinct", or, at least, an intuitive type of behaviour-pattern that has nothing to do with a freely chosen, moral choice, then, you may wonder, whether human loyalty is freely chosen or an instinctive type of behaviour. Indeed, it is a combination of both. In the human being, we still see many instinctive patterns of behaviour that originate as a result of our biological heritage, and, these instinctive patterns guide the overall outlines of our behaviour. We have, therefore, a tendency, or an instinct, to "attach ourselves" to someone, or, to some example, which we judge, intuitively, to be beneficial to follow, but, let us make it clear, that we are, here, talking about mechanisms that transcend the sphere of reproductive behaviour.

We have a tendency to emulate an ideal, and such an activity functions then as a powerful but rather primitive "behavioural organiser". Later, we become more discriminating and understanding about the possibilities and limitations of human behaviour and their exemplary values, and, we become, also, more selective in placing our loyalties. We also tend to attach our loyalties to an abstract ideal or goal, rather than the concrete example of a hero.

However, this is an aside which we have discussed before, and, we will undoubtedly discuss these mechanisms, again, at some time in the future. Let us come back upon the overall concept, that, in the evolutionary scale of animal development, we see a gradual shift in the type of mechanisms nature uses to secure the continuation of a species. From the initially haphazard chance-fertilisation of an egg-cell and its equally precarious conditions for development, secured by enormous quantities of sex-cells that have been released into the environment, we see, increasingly, a more specific pattern of behaviour. This trend takes the element of chance almost completely out of the reproductive mechanisms. Fertilisation becomes a highly complex act of mating, supplemented with an even more complex and prolonged act of "parental care", in order to secure the survival and development of a very small number of fertilised egg-cells.

.......

Chapter 6

Content

The break-through of internal gestation.
No need to go "forageing for food".
Birth; a hazardous event.
The marsupials; evidence for an evolutionary transition.
Advantages of the mammalian method of reproduction.
Mammalian reproduction; dominance and sexual exclusivity.
Sexual or marital fidelity in human beings is not based on a strong biological instinct.
The "biological heritage" of mankind.
Male and female roles.
The organic differentiation into male and female.
The phenomena of hormonal balance and overlap.
Confusion in sexual orientation.

In the mammalian species', we see another important break-through, where some of the major difficulties and limitations of the birds have been overcome. The need to incubate the eggs for a prolonged period of time is a great burden. It is a liability and a vulnerability, because the birds are bound to their nest, and, they can not move the nest and eggs to a safer place, whenever danger threatens them. Besides, the problem of searching for food while incubating the eggs, is a difficult one, requiring close cooperation between the partners, or, the ability to go without food for a long time. In addition, the food requirements of hatchlings are prodigious, making it a day-long task to feed them.

In the placental animals, the fertilised egg-cell is "implanted" into a special organ, the womb, and the embryo can grow there, at least, to a certain size, safely sheltered within the mother's womb. This leaves the mother free to move in a completely natural manner, since the womb is just one of the organs of her body. In addition, the ability to be fed by the maternal bloodstream, means, that there is no need to build an emergency ration around the fertilised egg-cell, and, the capability of nursing a youngster from the mammary glands after birth, obviates the need to "forage for food", as the birds have to do.

Yet, like everything else in nature, a certain design with major advantages, is, invariably, associated with a number of disadvantages. To bring the "living youngsters" into the world, is a rather hazardous procedure, because the young are easily damaged as they have to pass through a birth canal. Besides, there is a limit to the size a youngster can obtain before birth, in order to be "delivered" safely, and, it is not surprising, that, giving birth in the mammalian species', is fraught with a high level of complications, for the newborn as well as the mother.

The problem of nourishing vulnerable newborn youngsters is solved by the lactating glands of the mammae. It is a useful innovation that is much less cumbersome than the day-long forageing of birds. It is interesting to note, however, that evolutionary changes and experiments come slowly, and in stages, and, we would completely misinterpret the mechanisms of evolutionary change, if we visualised such a break-through of placental and mammalian reproduction to have developed suddenly.

Most intermediary stages of this evolutionary development have disappeared, as the species' that experimented with the possibilities of a viviparous reproduction, or the bearing of live youngsters, have become extinct. In the still existing marsupials, like kangaroos, we see, how the gestation period in the womb is still quite short, and, how the embryo, after a hazardous journey from the womb to the pouch, matures further in an "external womb". Let us not go into the fascinating physiological changes that have to occur, both in mother and child, in order to make this type of procreation successful. We can study and learn about these changes in most texts on biology. Here, we want to keep the overall philosophical lines in perspective.

The major advantage of the mammalian species' is their much greater mobility during the gestation period, as well as a much more efficient way of feeding their newborn youngsters in the first few weeks or months after birth. It is almost certain, that this "easement" of the task of bringing-up a new generation, also relaxed the bond between the sexual partners, and, we see, therefore, no significant trend in mammalian species' towards a life-long fidelity between the partners.

We see also a reduction in the number of offspring generated at the same time. As the mammalian species' became larger, the number of embryos per gestation dwindled rapidly to one, and, the period of gestation also lengthened considerably, reaching well over a year in the largest mammals. This reduction in the number of offspring was only possible, when the methods of gestation, nourishment and sheltering, before as well as afer birth, led to a remarkably low mortality rate. Only then, a sufficient rate of replacement was secured with such a laborious, slow and selective method of procreation.

We still see reflected in the abundance of the formation of sex-cells in the male, the principle of "security in multitudes", and, by and large, throughout the realm of mammalian species', we see, that the male is more or less ready to perform at a moment's notice, while the release of egg-cells and their implantation into the womb, requires a lengthy, cyclical period of preparation.

Mammalian species' that live in cold climates, have timed the birth of their young in relation to the seasons, and, therefore, their periodic cycles of "being in heat", or, being receptive to the mating urge, may be timed in such a way, that the birth of their off-spring takes place from early spring to early summer.

The cyclical nature of the female's readiness to be mated accounts for the cyclical nature of her willingness, or invitation, to be bred. Most of us are well familiar with the various signals that may flow between male and female in preparation of a sexual encounter, and, we also know, how closely human behaviour resembles, at least, in its instinctive outlines, those of other mammalian species'.

Before we are going to concentrate upon the more specific human behaviour-patterns and awarenesses associated with sexual or sexually related behaviour, we want to emphasise one more interesting difference in sexual behaviour between the mammals and the birds.

Since most mammals have become "socialised" animals, where they seek a measure of security in the formation of a herd or a socially integrated group, we see the phenomenon of "dominance" emerge. We have described these developments extensively before, and, we do not want to repeat them here, but the phenomenon of dominance also leads to the practice, that the dominant male mates with all the females in the group, and, the less dominant males do not get a change to breed a female, until they are ready to challenge a leader and fight for a position of dominance.

In nature, there is usually a close correlation between a position of dominance and a state of good health, vigour and viability. We see, that, there is, indeed, a marked existential advantage to have the most dominant, healthy and vigorous male breed the females in his group, especially, if the genetic turn-over is slow and the number of offspring few. Contributions by the male to the genetic spectrum are then taken from the male who represents, most clearly, the advantages and viability characteristics of the species', and, we may assume, that these same qualities are also reflected in his seed.

We see, therefore, that the practice of having the females breed, nearly exclusively, with the dominant male, coincides with the evolutionary goal to have the genetic spectrum of qualities gravitate as quickly as possible to those features, that appear to be the most viable for this species under the existing circumstances.

Let us not jump to the conclusion, that this observation justifies, either, a sort of promiscuity, or, a practice of "eugenetics" in the human society, because, we are not so sure, first of all, whether or not the most dominant males of the human species are, indeed, the most viable males. In the human species, the qualities of aggressiveness and dominance have a tendency to become counter-productive, and, they are not necessarily associated with the greatest degree of viability. Secondly, human sexuality and human behaviour have evolved greatly beyond the confines of this primitive biological heritage, and, we will see, that there is some evidence for a secondary trend towards task-specialisation and the maintenance of " a home environment", leading to a natural tendency for a life-long fidelity between sexual partners.

On the other hand, we have to acknowledge, that such a trend towards sexual or marital fidelity is not based on a strong biological urge, but, it is the result of a general search for social stability, and, we should not be surprised to see, that the trend towards fidelity breaks-down easily, if marriage becomes a hot-bed of tensions rather than a haven of rest.

Let us not slide, prematurely, into a discussion of human sexuality, because there are more aspects to be discussed, before we can have a comprehensive idea about the "biological heritage" with which we, as members of the human species, have been endowed. Let us discuss, first of all, what the consequences are for the behavioural differentiation of the male and female members of the mammalian species', especially, when the method of procreation required a prolonged period of gestation and lactation. Secondly, we should review, briefly, some of the mechanisms that lead to the organic differentiation between male and female. Both aspects have a great relevance for the way we see ourselves, and, in particular, for the way we see our role as male and female in the home; in our relationships with other people, as well as our role in the society at large.

It is natural, that the burden of being pregnant and having to carry an infant, before as well as after birth, leads to a specialisation in the roles between male and female. There are obvious anatomical differences that are a result of totally different functions in the procreative process, but, in addition, the fact, that the female becomes pregnant for a prolonged period before giving birth, makes her more vulnerable than the male. Certainly, this vulnerability is not anywhere the same as the vulnerability of the birds, be they male or female, but, nevertheless, the female is less agile when pregnant, certainly, in the later stages.

As we mentioned, the process of giving birth is quite demanding in all mammalian species'. While early man did not make as much a fuss about it as we tend to do in our affluent societies, it is nevertheless a process that is frequently associated with dangerous complications, and, it leaves the mother quite vulnerable for a number of days.

The peculiarities of behavioural flexibility, together with the requirements for a prolonged learning period during infancy, childhood and early adolescence, leaves the anthropoid offspring exceptionally vulnerable and dependent for many years. Here, the human species shows indeed a serious liability, because we can not find a more vulnerable infant in the entire spectrum of mammalian life.

Certain newborns, such as the ungulates, can walk almost immediately after birth, and, even the anthropoid infants, which are undoubtedly closest to us in terms of evolutionary kinship, can, at least, "cling" to the fur of their mother. The human infant is unable to do anything, but cry, feed by sucking, and evacuate. Only slowly, over a period of fifteen years, or more, the human infant matures into a fully integrated member of the society it has been born into.

We do not want to elaborate, here, the vulnerability of the human infant, nor, the exquisitely complex behaviour-patterns of parental care, which are necessary to bring this task of procreation to a successful conclusion. We just want to emphasise the fact, that the role of the female, in particular, the human female, is closely associated with the well-being of the infant, and, any denial of such a specialised role of the mother in the up-bringing of her children is a sad mistake, as well as a sign of ignorance.

This does not mean, that women have to be "kept at home" at all times, or, that it is reasonable to give them a less thorough education. It certainly does not mean, that women, who are free from the burdens of motherhood or parenthood, can not pursue a career in society, just like the males. It certainly does not mean, that women should be discriminated against or being paid less for the same work performed by their male counter-parts, but, it does mean, that one can not deny her biological role and her primary responsibilities.

It certainly does not mean, that the roles of male and female can be substituted arbitrarily, after the necessarily female role of giving birth has been fulfilled, and, it does not mean, that there is any justification for male or female, to belittle the role of home-maker, or to minimise the responsibilities of parental behaviour.

However, let us not go into this, here, because we plan to discuss these aspects in more detail later on, when we concentrate, specifically, on human behaviour and the role of adequate parents. Here, we want to say a few words about the organic differentiation into male and female.

We know, now, that a set of specific genetic instructions carries out this differentiation. From a general "ground-plan" for the body, a specific male or female road of development will be chosen in the later stages of embryogenesis. These anatomical and functional differentiations are profound, giving rise, not only, to a different set of internal and external organs, but, also, to a whole variety of differences that come to the fore, after, or during, the period of sexual maturity. These are the so-called "secondary sexual characteritics", which are usually associated, fairly clearly, with the sexual role, but, some of them, are less clearly associated with a particular sexual function, such as e.g. the growth of a beard, or the lowering of the male voice during the onset of puberty.

However, this variety of primary and secondary sexual characteristics points-out the profound differences in the function and structure, as well as the hormonal balance of male and female. Interestingly, the concept of a "hormonal balance" gives us also an explanation for the fact, that, "maleness", as well as "femaleness", are characteristics that show a variable degree of penetration from one individual to the next. Because maleness and femaleness are associated with a balance of hormones, which is predominant towards the male side in those who have been anatomically and functionally differentiated into males, and, vice versa, for the female differentiation, we see many transitional forms.

There are many males with characteristics that are usually more associated with females, such as a female type of hair and fatty-tisue distribution, voice characteristics, skin texture, the tendency to form breasts or a smallness of male sex-organs. On the other hand, there are females with male characteristics, such as a low voice, a tendency to grow facial hair, smallness of breasts, etc.

It is important to understand, that, both males and females have male and female hormones, which are "functional regulators" determining, to a large extent, the sexual functions of the body and the characteristics of body and mind. Even, after a clear-cut sexual differentiation has taken place during embryogenesis, there are many possibilities that the hormonal balance may go somewhat to the opposite side, giving rise to a somewhat "mixed bag" of secondary sexual characteristics.

Because these mechanisms are often not clearly taught at school, these somewhat confusing differences can lead to a great deal of embarrassment, anguish, and emotional stress. We will again return to this biological or physiological background, once we start to discuss the element of confusion in sexual orientation, which takes place, so often, in societies, where behavioural guidelines have become confused and distorted.

We hope, that these discussions have provided, at least, a "feeling" for the biological background that lies behind our sexual instincts and behaviour-patterns. In the remaining chapters of this essay, we will focus, exclusively, upon human behaviour, and, in particular, upon those aspects of human behaviour that are associated with, or related to, the emotions and instincts of sexuality.

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Chapter 7

Content

Secretive Puritan Protestantism.
Sexual drives have to be channeled into socially acceptable behaviour-patterns.
The "battle of the sexes".
Stereotyping male and female roles.
The stridency of militant feminism.
A plea for reasonable opinions and attitudes towards sexuality and sexual differentiations.
Confusing and erroneous attitudes have a short life-span.
A healthy biological urge.
Flexibility in beliefs and attitudes, which is a true Homo Sapiens tradition, will be the best safeguard for continuing viability.
The discrepancy between sexual and social "readiness".
The sexual tensions of adolescence.
The difference between beauty and pornography.
Sexual repression and "sublimation".
Discipline and self-discipline".
Since the audience determines the value of its artistic encounters, it has the full right to decide what it finds objectionable or beautiful.

The sexual differentiation into male and female, as well as the drive of sexually oriented behaviour, pervade our entire life. When a child becomes aware of its identity and learns to call itself "I", it also becomes aware, that he or she is a boy or a girl. When a child becomes gradually aware of the many differences between the sexes, he or she also learns, that the people around him or her are hiding some aspects of sex, or, at least, the sexual encounter and the giving of birth.

The reasons for this differentiation into boy or girl, the precise function of the different sex-organs, as well as the actual sexual encounter between adolescents or adults, together with the act of giving birth, are all shrouded in some sort of mystery; at least, this is the case in most of the more sophisticated and complex societies.

Not every culture is as secretive as Puritan Protestantism used to be, but, nearly all societies and cultures have recognised the powerful emotions and influences upon the relationships between people, which are the result of, or find their origin in, the differentiation of the sexes and the instincts of sexual behaviour. Nearly all societies have, therefore, developed strict guidelines for sexual and sexually related behaviour-patterns. These guidelines regulate the awakening sexual curiosity, and, later, the sexual drive, leading the behaviour-patterns of adolescents into acceptable and well-regulated pathways.

These attempts are perfectly reasonable and logical, because it is not difficult to see, how easy the sexual drive, and related instincts, lead to rivalry, strife, and, even, outright violence, in particular, when these guidelines break-down.

We do not have to search far, before we see, how children get already into a competitive situation, because the boys want to "show off" in order to get the attention of an attractive little girl, or, they get actually into a fight, as they become rivals for her attention. Yet, girls become also embroiled in sexually inspired jealousies and anxieties, especially, when they realise, that they are not equally endowed with the quality of attractiveness for the opposite sex.

In addition to these multiple sources for strife and friction between members of the same sex, we see, that the "battle of the sexes" starts already at an early age. While, initially, the "battle" is, primarily, an expression of a certain shyness and awkwardness in dealing with that strange "other sex", we see, quickly, how a more intensive contact between the sexes, based upon mutual interest and attraction, also leads to a certain rivalry.

When the behavioural role of either sex in society is quite stereotyped, we see a measure of resentment and rebellion arise, because the stereotyped role of the female is, often, a simplistic, male chauvinist caricature of what a girl, or women, is, or should be. In a male dominated society of commercial interests, the female sexuality and attractiveness is often exploited to the point, that the girl is, almost exclusively, presented as a sexual object, and, it is logical, and justified, that such an exploitation creates strong resentments and objections from many quarters in society.

Unfortunately, as is nearly always the case in human reactions and counter-reactions, the protests and objections are often exaggerated and one-sided. The sexual attractiveness of a girl or young woman may become completely rejected under a regime of strident militancy for the "Feminist Cause". Just as it is irrealistic, naive, and degrading, to see a woman only as a sexual partner, so is it equally naive, short-sighted and outright erroneous to suppress the qualities and mechanisms of sexual attraction, all-together.

As we mentioned before, we can not deny the fact, that the processes of sexual differentiation have a wide-ranging influence upon the behaviour of the sexes, and, the fact, that the girl or the young woman is "geared" to bear children, to become a loving housewife and mother, to emphasise the qualities of tenderness, affection and femininity in her behaviour, does not make her dumb or emotionally superficial. It does not mean, that she does not have the right to an equally comprehensive education as the male. It certainly does not mean, that she can not enter the labour-force, or the ranks of professional people, in order to make a contribution to society as a career person, in particular, when we are dealing with women, who have either brought-up their children already, or, who have, for one reason or another, not accepted the responsibilities of motherhood.

However, let us not go to extremes. Let us acknowledge, that the male physique is, by and large, more suitable for physically demanding work, but, in a society that is becoming increasingly mechanised, the reasons for such a job discrimination or differentiation, are slowly disappearing. It certainly is no valid excuse to keep females away from such traditional male bastions as top-executive positions in business, industry or the bureaucracies, or, the fields of piloting air-crafts and other sophisticated machinery, military professions, or heavy-equipment operators. Certainly, there is no reason to discriminate between male and female, when assigning modern, mechanised combat roles.

I think, that it is not reasonable, however, to advocate a complete reversal of the traditional roles. I believe, that it is unwise, impractical and not in accordance with our biological programming, to have the male look, permamently, after the infants or children, to do the cooking or wash the diapers, while the female has a job outside the house. In our modern societies, we have witnessed a strong drive towards the equalisation of male and female roles, and, there are many instances, where a certain reversal of attitudes, aspirations and ambitions has occurred.

There is a trend towards a greater aggressiveness in females, and, perhaps, a trend towards a greater passivity in males, especially, those, who have become somewhat confused in their orientation and have become the victim of chaotic or non-existent cultural and parental guidelines. Under these conditions, it may be reasonable for certain couples to reverse their roles, but, I believe, that we can not justify the position that such a reversal should be considered completely natural or normal.

We see, throughout history, that confusing or erroneous guidelines tend to persist, only, for a short period of time, because these guidelines are not viable, nor successful. It would be wise to keep in mind the distinct possibility, that our present opinions about sexual orientation and the role of the sexes in our affluent societies, are nothing more than a passing fad, which will be judged, in retrospect, as an erroneous and perverted interpretation of reality.

Besides, it is clear, that feminist trends and homosexual orientations remain a minority. Sure, they are often vocal and strident minorities, which have been able to get an undue share of attention of the media because of their sensational stance and outrageous claims, but, we have to acknowledge, that, certainly in the early phases of the feminist movement, many sexual prejudices and abuses have been rightly condemned and exposed.

There will always be a large number of people, male and female alike, who grow-up in average, normal households, where the sexes play a role that is fairly close to their biologically programmed instructions, and, where a measure of honesty and openness prevents the children from being drawn into radical view-points. We will always see, that, most girls enjoy their good looks and other attributes which nature has given them to attract the attention of the boys, and, we will always see, that most boys are interested in girls, whenever they have become adolescents.

Most boys and young men are quite flexible in their attitudes towards the opposite sex. They can be lured into a sexual arousal by the attractive, or, even, provocative behaviour of the other sex, and, they will, then, see the female, primarily, as a sexual partner, but, they can also consider the girl or woman as a person; as an individual; as someone, who has the same rights to an opinion, education, job or a measure of freedom and responsbilility, as they enjoy themselves.

This flexibility in attitude by ordinary boys and girls, as well as adult men and women, is far wiser, and far more viable, than the rigid and somewhat sterile stereotypes, which we see in the opposing camps of the male chauvinists and the militant feminists. Fortunately, nature makes a mockery of these pedantic stereotypes by virtue of its biological programming, be it of the male chauvinists and the commercial exploiters of sexual stimuli, or, the strident but hollow militance of the feminists.

The forces of mutual attraction in most healthy and reasonably balanced male and female adolescents are so strong, that, very little can stop them from their urge to meet, to explore each other, and to make love. However, this does not mean, that, we, as responsible citizens of a much larger society, should not have strict guidelines for these strong natural forces and instincts. It is clearly necessary to guide sexual behaviour into pathways that are acceptable to the young people, as well as the society or community in which they live.

In a natural setting, the time of sexual ripening co-incides with the ability and the inclination to engage in sexual activities and bear offspring, but, in most human societies, apart from, perhaps, the most primitive groupings, we recognise, that this instinct to mate and to impregnate the adolescent females, has to be regulated, so that the birth of the offspring co-incides with a socially acceptable role and position of the adolescents involved.

Indeed, the crux of the problem for the human being lies in the fact, that this growth into a social position of adult responsibility, with the ability to make a useful contribution to society, lags far behind the timing of sexual awakening. This is partly due to the fact, that the human being needs fifteen years, or more, of "plain guidance", before one can become a responsible adult, while the instinct to mate awakens, often, well before the period of mental and social maturation has been completed.

This, it seems, is the heritage of our biological background, where we pay the price for a very long learning and preparatory period. With a long learning period, we may be able to acquire nearly unlimited mental capabilities and mastery over the circumstances of our existence. This trend is already set into motion by our biological heritage of behavioural flexibility and small-scale social integration, and, it becomes even more accentuated in the complex societies, because the preparatory period of learning, training and acquiring skills, now extends, easily, into the early and, even, late twenties. This means, that the individual is sexually already mature for a decade or so, before it becomes socially acceptable to start a family.

This tension between the awakened sexuality of adolescents and their inability to perform a function in society allowing them to start married life and support a family, is the source of a great number of problems and emotional tensions, but, it is also the inspiration for many works of art, acts of courage, and attitudes of compassion and understanding. It may bring-out highly admired and socially desirable traits, but, it is also a rich feeding ground for a vast area of crime and corruption.

Let us review, in a panoramic vision, what aspects and characteristics we see, as we look around us in society. First of all, we note, that this tension or discrepancy evokes a cultural pattern of guidelines that is nearly always "repressive"; in the sense, that it discourages the display of sexual instincts or emotions. It discourages, even, the discussion of many questions and topics young people would naturally like to ask, as their curiosity is being aroused about everything they see around them.

Children discover, quickly, that questions about the genitals is met with a rather evasive attitude; that they are discouraged from showing their genitals, and, that the marked differences between boys and girls remain vague and mysterious. This "taboo" about so many aspects of anatomical differences and physiological functions, induces an attitude of secrecy, when such matters are discussed between "confidants". At the same time, these cultural taboos provide a bond of togetherness between peers, and, it also prepares this peculiar climate of titillation and prurience that slides, later, into the broad categories of the "dirty joke", or the outright stimulation of sexual desires and fantasies by pornography.

Perhaps, we should try to delineate the difference between pornography and the stimulation of sexual desires as a result of normal biological and behavioural mechanisms. If a boy or girl is sexually aroused, partly, because he or she has matured to the point that this arousal is easily brought-about, and, partly, because an encounter between boy and girl has sparked this "interest", we do not speak of pornography. When we see the refreshingly natural emotions and mechanisms of sexual arousal between healthy and normal adolescents, and, when we see, that their arousal is "tempered" by the awareness that cultural and ethical guidelines "demand" a measure of restraint, the experience or the witnessing of such a happening can easily give rise to a sensation of beauty, as well as somewhat nostalgic memories.

Besides, these natural mechanisms are slowed, to some extent, by a naturally occurring "confusion", whenever young people experience these strong emotions for the first time, However, we are probably correct to consider this confusion to be the result of a long cultural heritage, which has shrouded these experiences in a sort of "silent mystery". Youngsters who have grown-up with much less inhibitions, will be much more direct in their encounters, and, they are also inclined to progress, quickly, to a full sexual experience, while those, who have inherited and absorbed the cultural legacy of rather strong inhibiting guidelines, will express their feelings in a much more "romantic", dreamy, or indirect manner, where more or less explicit sexual fantasies may play a role.

This tension between socially acceptable courting behaviour, and a strong sexual drive, may give rise to tensions and fantasies that are relieved only by an orgasm, and, we see, how, in certain societies, a rather remarkable separation took place between the object of romantic feelings and sexual satisfaction. Occasionally, such a division was carried to the point that one partner, usually the male, who has, at least, initially, the stronger urge, makes use of a prostitute to "relieve himself", while dreaming of the girl he is going to marry! Such a split in attitudes and sexual morality is completely erroneous and unhealthy, and the recent trend towards a greater degree of frankness and openness in sexual matters, is right and timely.

However, we are wrong to conclude, that we can do away with all restrictions or guidelines. First of all, there is the fact, that, unbridled gratification of all sorts of emotions and drives, including those of sexuality, lead to a weak, egocentric and undisciplined personality. This leads, in turn, to a defective social organisation, followed by a period of social decline or decay. A society that has lost the appreciation for self-discipline, has passed its zenith, and is, perhaps, already in a steep decline.

Undisciplined and egocentric sexual behaviour saps, not only, the ability of the individual to solve problems with courage and determination, but, it reduces the ability to experience more refined feelings and emotions, and, it hampers the ability to display attitudes of care and consideration in the long inter-play between husband and wife, which is far from a long and uninterrupted series of happy sexual encounters.

Pornography is the commercial exploitation of the need, or desire, to stimulate the sexual drive with provocative pictures or descriptions, and because the intention is, merely, to "make money", and give the egocentric reader what he wants, the intentions and the effects of pornography are radically different from the artist, who has been moved by a fresh and stimulating sexual arousal occurring in "real life".

Certainly, when an artist becomes more "commercially oriented" and produces his art, primarily, as a clever manipulation of the emotions and desires of his audience, rather than as a reflection of his own experiences and emotions, art slides, imperceptibly, into pornography. Therefore, art depicting sexuality does not necessarily mean, that the product is pornographic, but, on the other hand, a claim that it is "art" does not exclude the possibility, that it is, essentially, pornographic in its intentions.

A frank and somewhat unusual description or depiction of an artistic but sexually coloured experience, may give a "prurient" and pornographic impression to an interpretor, or reader, of such a work of art. Since the audience is the "re-creator" of the artistic endeavour, it is their impressions and recreations that count, and, if a significant section of the public condemns a work of art as pornographic, in spite of the fact, that the intentions of the artist were not commercial, then, the public has the perfect right to consider the work "obscene".

If the work of art has truly "redeeming" qualities that will erase the impression of pornography for future generations, then, the work of art should be laid aside, until such time, that future generations can recognise, more fully, the true intentions and qualities of the artist and his work.

.......

Chapter 8

Content

The intentions of pornography; a consumerist orientation.
Sexual drives and attitudes are always strongly egocentrically oriented.
The egocentricity of the romantic adolescent.
Normal sexual development leads, as a rule, to a ripening of successful parental behaviour-patterns.
A need for cautious contraceptive techniques.
The temptation to "rid ourselves" from the burdens of parenthood.
The human nature of the embryo and fetus.
The question of "rape".
Occasionally, the sexual urge may become coupled with a strongly aggressive instinct of hatred; a psychopathic form of behaviour.
The feminist obsession with rape.
Childhood experiences.
Sexual attraction is a temporary and super-imposed bond upon a deep instinct of competitiveness.
The egocentric aspects of the behaviour of care and concern.

The intention of pornography is to stimulate the egocentric and, often, crude sexual instincts of the individual who buys or looks at this sort of material. However, because of the grossly exaggerated explicitness, poor quality and taste, pornographic material often misses its goal entirely, as it becomes disgusting rather than stimulating. Pornography is egocentric in a double sense, because it exploits, not only, the egocentric desires of the "consumer", but, it exploits him or her financially as well. Only the merchant of smut benefits, and, in order to rake-in his criminal profits, he destroys the sensitivities, the concern for others, as well as the feelings of tenderness and compassion of his customers.

Let us not make the mistake to think, that, only the sexual arousal caused by pornographic stimuli is egocentric in its orientation. Certainly, the pornographic stimulus is, often, crude and blatantly egocentric, but, we would lose our perspective upon the nature and origin of the sexual drive, if we forget, that the satiation of a sexual drive is, in essence, an egocentric affair, which can, often, be shared in a mutually satisfactory act of sexual intercourse between boy and girl, or, man and women. Nevertheless, the orientation remains, primarily, egocentric.

Even the "refined feelings" that are often the by-product of an elaborate cultural code, and result from an equally elaborate and complicated sexual standard or ethic, are primarily egocentric in nature. The romantic adolescent, admiring the idealised beauty of his distant love, is, in essence, in love with his own imagery. Similarly, the lure or attractiveness of the truly feminine girl can also be unabashedly exploited to further egocentric goals, and, to play with the emotions and feelings of her suitors.

Actually, it is only in the aftermath of a sexual union and a mutually induced, but, essentially, egocentric sexual happiness, that the less egocentric, more mature and more enduring qualities of mutual love, respect and shared responsibilities come to the fore. Then, it becomes necessary to care for the offspring, for each other, as well as for the numerous concerns and problems that arise, whenever the arduous and never-ending responsibilities of family-life have been fully accepted.

Every wise society has realised, that, the real value of the sexual drive and its fulfilment was represented by the preparation of the adolescents for their task as mature, concerned and responsible parents. Only in recent years has man learned the technique to divorce the pleasures of sex from the responsibilities of parenthood, and, while the mastery over nature can always be used, either to the benefit, or to the detriment of nature, as well as man himself, we see, perhaps, nowhere, more clearly, the enormous potential for harm, than in the ability to enjoy the pleasures of sex, without the need to accept the natural corollary of parenthood.

Certainly, there are great advantages, too, and, a cautious and judicious use of contraceptive techniques is necessary, because we do not want, anymore, the crude and primitive mechanisms of a high infant mortality to keep the population of human beings within manageable limits. It certainly is far more humane to prevent a human being from being formed, than to let him or her die from starvation, neglect or disease.

However, we have to be very careful to think-through all the consequences and attitudes that come to the fore with this powerful technique of preventing the initiation of a pregnancy. First of all, we should be aware of the ever-present temptation to "rid ourselves" of the burdens of becoming parents and bringing-up children, while we indulge in the egocentric pleasures of sex.

The techniques of contraception have certainly fostered a strong tendency, especially, in the affluent societies, to become hedonistic and irresponsible, egocentric and introvert. While these trends were already promoted by the commercial flavour of our social environment, as well as the widespread availability of commercial or pornographic stimuli, the tendency towards such an irresponsible and undisciplined attitude is encouraged even more by the ability to divorce sex from the responsibilities of parenthood.

In my opinion, we have not even begun to realise the problems this particular technology of contraception has created. If we look at the question of terminating a life of fetal development, after it has been initiated by a sexual enounter, the answer is much easier. Any such termination on grounds, other than strict medical criteria, such as the health or safety of the mother, or, the likelyhood that the fetus is severely malformed or diseased, will have to be considered as an act of murder. The infant-in-development, the fetus, who has found a possibility to exist because of the fertilisation and implantation of an egg-cell, or, the child that is eventually born, has nothing to do with the circumstances of the sexual encounter, and, it is totally irrelevant to this child, whether or not the sexual encounter that led to its existence, was wanted.

This brings us to the question of "rape", or the enforced sexual encounter, and, here, too, we need to see things in a clear, biological perspective, before we can give sensible answers, or, enter into a sensible discussion, because this topic is one of the favourite battle-cries for the militant feminist groupings. Throughout nature, we see a curious mixture of force and consent in the execution of the sexual act. The epitomy of the unwilling female is, probably, the spider who decapitates every suitor and is, eventually, impregnated by one, a vigorous but decapitated male, who has lost all inhibitions and sense of caution for the murderous female, after he has lost, quite literally, his head.

Yet, even, in less extreme circumstaces, we see, that the sexual act requires, often, a great deal of "emotional or behavioural synchronisation", before the female will tolerate such an act, and, before the male can be brought to mate, which, often, requires an extra-ordinary amount of energy. Even in those animals that are close to us, we see, that the male is often only tolerated, when the female is "in heat", or physiologically receptive. Even, then, it requires a measure of forceful persuasion and persistence on the part of the male to complete the act successfully.

In the inter-actions between human beings, we see a very similar situation, except for the fact, that the female can be "willing", even, outside the physiologically most favourable time period for conception. On the one hand, the female may "entice", or invite a male response, but, at the same time, she may be "hard to get", and, she parcels her favours in an intuitive game of divide and conquer. The male, once aroused, is naturally persistent, and, even, rather forceful in his persuasion, but, very few normal males would press their sexual demands well beyond the point of a serious and genuine resistance by the female. A truly serious rejection by the female has a marked cooling effect upon the male, and his hurt ego dissipates, quickly, the sexual urge.

Occasionally, in societies where the development of some personalities go astray without anyone really noticing what is happening, there may be grossly abnormal psychological tensions, and, the sexual urge may become coupled with a strongly aggressive instinct of hatred and disgust for the opposite sex, or, for society in general. This type of personality lies behind the pathological mind of the psychopath, who may become a rapist and a killer, raping his victims in a lurid ecstasy of fused aggressive and sexual instincts, followed by a mutilating murder to give vent to his rage.

The normal male is not a rapist and could not perform under the duress of a truly genuine rejection or rebuttal, but, it is undoubtedly true, that our confused and affluent societies harbour a frighteningly high percentage of people with psychopathic tendencies and other, psychological aberrations.

The feminist obsession with rape is in itself a manifestation of this "battle of the sexes", which is, in its extreme form, also the foundation for the behaviour of the psychopathic rapist-killer. The aggressive female, who has developed, for one reason or another, a deep mistrust and dislike for the opposite sex, is by her behaviour and attitude far from being an attractive woman, but, her hatred may go so far, that certain docile and confused males can be "lured" into an attitude of making a sexual advance, after which the male may be accused of being a rapist. The accusation of rape may, therefore, be untrue, and, it may be an expression of hatred by the "victim".

What is the reason, why the more normal mechanisms of attraction between the sexes can be perverted into a deep-seated attitude of mistrust, or, even, outright hatred? Indeed, we have to go back to childhood experiences. While we can not claim to understand all the factors at work, it seems reasonable to say, that the atmosphere and the nature of inter-personal relationships between adults, and, in particular, between the parents, will make a great impression on a young child, as it slowly becomes aware of its surroundings.

If a child is reared in an atmosphere of trust, tranquility and stability, with a measure of healthy, normal and non-exaggerated affection between the parents, it will grow-up confidently, and, we will see the normal physiological and psychological mechanisms break through at the appropriate age. However, if the child is exposed to violence between the parents, consistent abuse of the mother by the father, or, vice versa, a father, who is completely dominated by a nagging, unattractive and vicious wife, then, it is easy to see, that, some strong fears and antipathies may develop in this child, who is watching, in silence, this constant battle, and suffers intensely from such psychological turmoil and pathological relationships.

A boy may identify with an oppressed father, and his hatred for a domineering mother may interfere, later, with normal feelings and relationships towards the opposite sex. Similarly, a girl, identifying with an oppressed mother, may direct her awakening, aggressive instincts to the opposite sex.

Frequently, however, the causes for a significant development in a personality trait are not easy to see, because we do not know, what makes a great impression, and, what makes a relatively slight imprint on a youngster or adolescent. Therefore, a long "routine" of turmoil may be spectacular to the outsider, but, it may have relatively little influence upon the psychological development of a child, while another experience, unnoticed by everyone else, may have a profound effect on the character development of this child.

We should not forget, that, the attraction between male and female, as a preparation for the fulfilment of a sexual instinct, is only a temporary and super-imposed condition upon a much deeper competitive instinct existing between all individuals, regardless of a specific sexual orientation. This is the reason, why, after the sexual urge has spent itself, the conflicts of interest, the mutual irritations and weaknesses, as well as the struggle for dominance, come, once again, to the fore, as the personalities battle their usual rounds of conflicts and give vent to their tensions.

Here, we see, why it is so necessary, that the drive of sexual attraction is suplemented by a stimulation and awakening of the "instincts" of parental care, where the orientation shifts, again, under the influence of "biological programming", to a less egocentric but nevertheless satisfying attitude of care and concern for the vulnerable infant, or, for the equally vulnerable unit of mother-and-infant.

We have traced, on previous occasions, the origins of ethical behaviour, and, we have seen that its roots lie in the refinements in attitude which are shaped by the requirements of parental care. We will not repeat these arguments, here, but, we want to emphasise this remarkable program of instinctive behaviour, in particular, in the behaviourally flexible animals, where the successful up-bringing of the vulnerable, newly born generation requires a radical shift from an egocentric attitude to an attitude of care for others.

Certainly, in a way, this is still "egocentric" behaviour, because, just like the desire to satiate a sexual drive, the instincts of parental care are evoked and satisfied by the stimulus of seeing a newly born, helpless, vulnerable and completely trusting infant. Yet, this satisfying experience that "it feels so good" to care for someone else, is the fundamental corner-stone for all the potential benefits of natural ethical behaviour.

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Chapter 9

Content

The father, and the unit of mother-and-child.
The drive towards social integration is based upon the mechanisms of parental concern, and not on sexual attraction.
The competitiveness of siblings.
Youngsters and their "sense of justice".
Unsatisfactory aspects of the practice of sexual promiscuity.
Strong secondary incentives to become "a pair".
Problems associated with an unbridled sexual instinct.
The virtue of self-discipline.

In the final analysis, the entire unit of parents and offspring is tied together by bonds that find their origin in the attitudes of parental care. Certainly, the most "biological", clearest and instinctively programmed bonds of affection exist between a mother and her child, and, to a lesser extent, the bonds of protective affection exist, also, between the father and this complex of "mother-and-child".

We have elaborated these mechanisms before, and, we will only summarise them, here, briefly, in order to show the essentially different origin of this behavioural trait, compared to behaviour that is based, solely, on the sexual drive. We can see, clearly, that the bonds of familiarity and mutual trust within the natural unit of the family, give rise to a mellower and more trusting attitude between the members than is possible between those, who are strangers to each other.

In contrast, we see, that the object of "sexual attention" is often someone from a strange or different family, since, to some extent, the familiarity of the kinship relations inhibits the mechanisms of sexual attraction. This does not mean, that they are absent, because we see many incidences where siblings "experiment" or indulge in sexual play, and, we see also the possibility of a sexual attraction between a father and his maturing daughter. These trends have undoubtedly strong biological roots, because many animal species' practice "incest", or "allow" mating beween the parents and their off-spring.

For many good reasons, sexual guidelines in most cultures frown upon incest or excessive sexual play between siblings. Probably, we see, here, also, a natural tendency at work, because the creation of a "wide genetic spectrum", with all its advantages, would be lost, if off-spring would come forth from sexual contacts between members who are closely related in kinship.

To come back on the observation, or contention, that the sexual drive and the instinct of care have quite different origins, we like to point-out, that the sexual overtures, the courtship, as well as the act of mating, often, resemble a battle or a conquest. This battle ends, usually, in a victory for the persistent suitor, but, not always, because strong rivalries and competitive pressures show us the close relationships between the instincts of aggression and sexuality.

Siblings show in their contacts, clearly, the essentially competitive programming of our behaviour, especially, during the phase of adolescence. Here, a strong elan vital is making itself felt. The individual is "expanding" his or her horizons, and, the maturing personality is battling for a place in the social hierarchy, but, we see, also, that, sensible parents, who have been able to bring-up their children in an atmosphere of consistency and stability, have had few difficulties teaching their children the insight to temper competitive ambitions with mutual concern and cooperation.

In spite of their awakening aggressiveness, such children and adolescents easily trust other people, and, they are quite willing to cooperate, as long as they are convinced, that they are not being exploited and abused, and, that everyone is treated fairly. Youngsters and adolescents have a keen "sense of justice", even, if they are not able to formulate, consciously and precisely, the concepts and abstract principles that lie behind their feelings for justice.

The mutual attraction between sexual partners changes, eventually, to a more mellow attitude of maternal concern and care for her child, together with a more protective, providing and sheltering instinct by the father. In most societies, the mechanics of providing for the necessities of life, and, in particular, for the protracted burdens of sheltering, feeding, guiding and educating the younger generations, have become centered around the "husband and wife" team, and, therefore, we see a secondary trend towards an attitude of "mating for life".

While these attitudes are precisely programmed behavioural responses in birds, based on strict biological necessities, this seconday trend in the human way of living together, is, primarily, culturally or socially determined. The cultural mode or code of behaviour changes quickly, and, there may be a reversal to a more communal sharing of all aspects of life, including those of sexual contact. However, the strong tendency of the human being to want to identify the off-spring as "his own", as well as the burdens of increased emotional tensions, frictions, jealousies and insecurity that come to the fore with a frequent rotation of sexual partners, makes the practice of promiscuity, by and large, unsatisfactory, in particular, when there are no stringent external pressures to make such a way of life advantageous.

There is a strong tendency for sexual partners to become a "pair", and, to share all the living experiences, as well as the tasks of providing an income and making a home. This fusion of life-styles, tasks, problems and personalities, leads, often, to a strong bond between the sexual partners. In particular, when the attitudes of mutual respect and care are able to refine the excitement of sexual attractiveness, we may see a very enduring bond, indeed.

It is certainly necessary, that the reasons for marriage are supplemented by such features as shared responsibilities, joys, tasks and problems, because, biologically, the bond of sexual attraction is a very temporary affair. On purely biological grounds, it is quite natural, in particular for the male, to have sexual contacts with a variety of females. Unless there is a sense of responsibility and affection for the original mate, grown in years of shared living experiences, there will be little reason for the male to "stick" with his old partner.

We do not have to elaborate, here, all the difficulties the older male can get into, whenever he gives-in to his biological urge, and, we are all aware of the great injustices such an "undisciplined" behaviour can cause. Besides, we see, that the younger, more attractive female is not really attracted sexually to the older male, even, if this may be temporarily the case, with a lot of "fatherly persuasiveness" on the part of a vigorous, but older male. By and large, the sensitivity of the older male to the attractions of the young female, is exploited. It is abused, either, by the female to get what she wants, or, to sell her sexual favours outright for money. Or, the older male is exploited on all sides by commercial interests, trying to feed his renewed sexual appetite with all sorts of stimuli.

Certainly, in our modern societies, the woman can share in the same course of events, in particular, if she is "emancipated" and free in her financial and social position. Such females, often, look for the vigorous, exciting, younger male to satisfy heightened sexual desires, which the ageing, sexual partner may be unable to provide, and, which may also be suppressed by a lack of attractiveness on the part of the older female. Clearly, the loosening of a bond of sexual fidelity between ageing partners gives rise to numerous problems, tensions, as well as turmoil, and, these upheavals may lead to costly financial obligations and bonds of emotional enslavement. There are always unscrupulous elements in society who try to profit from marital discord.

There are, therefore, many practical reasons, why it pays to continue a marriage bond, even, after the initial excitement has worn-off. As we grow older, the obligations of parental care have eased; the children have grown-up, and a measure of financial security has often been obtained. We have settled into our last "ecological niche" in society. A little insight into the stirrings and emotions that may take place when we get older; a little self-discipline and a sound attitude to take our drives, aspirations and instincts not too seriously, are powerful ways to avert unnecessary troubles and turmoil.

But, there are much more compelling and broadly based reasons, why it is imperative to cultivate an attitude of self-discipline. This attitude of self-discipline applies, not only, to our sexual desires, but, to all our instincts and drives. We need self-discipline in all our "consumptive habits", from eating and drinking to spending money, as well as a self-discipline in beliefs, attitudes and moral judgements.

We have to be careful, at all times, in everything we do, because we have to ask ourselves, continuously, whether or not our actions and existence, attitudes and relations with other peole, as well as our consumptive habits, lead to a stress and injustice; either, for other people, for the natural environment, or, for the generations that are still to come.

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Chapter 10

Content

Human rights, and the clamor for a complete eqality in the roles of male and female.
The need to distinguish between common prejudices and biological determinants.
Necessary and unnecessary disparities.
No jurisdiction over the life and body of an unborn child.
A child is not responsible for the way it was conceived.
Understanding the phenomenon of homosexuality does not mean that it is "normal".
Sexual confusion is primarily culturally determined.
Relieving sexual tensions.
Are sexual preferences and practices a matter of conscience and privacy?
The importance of sexual education.
Teaching a wide range of physical and psychological mechanisms.
No sexual repression, but no sexual indiscipline either.
The nature and extent of permissible pre-marital sexual experiences will be the subject of an on-going debate.
A plea for openness in sexual matters, but, there is also a need to curb the exploitation of emotions and desires.

The most important tool we can use to develop a sensitive awareness of the harm we can do to our natural and social environment, is the attitude of self-discipline, where we learn to keep our drives and instincts, emotions and reactions, within an overall framework of rational control and careful evaluation. Attitudes of careful control and self-discipline are going to be the corner-stones for a just, global society, as we have discussed many times before, and, a measure of self-discipline in our consumptive habits and sexual desires, is going to help us to avoid unnecessary turmoil, situations of injustice, as well as emotional scars. A little self-discipline and insight will go a long way towards protecting ourselves from being abused and exploited by those, who prey on our unfulfilled desires.

Let us discuss, for a moment, whether or not the ideals of universal human rights and conditions of justice clash with the claims and aims of such groupings as the feminists, who are clamoring for a complete equality in the roles of the sexes, or, the clamor of the homo-sexuals, who are fighting for equal rights with hetero-sexuals. Are these claims and aims reasonable or justified?

Here, we have to make a careful distinction between the various view-points and objectives of these organisations and movements, because they all contain a mix of justified and unjustified goals. The principle that male and female members of the human race should have equal social rights, equal opportunities of employment, education and financial compensation, in all social strata and job opportunities of society, is a goal that is fully justified, because, in spite of the basic biological differences between male and female, there are no social positions and occupations that should be closed to either sex, either, on the basis of cultural traditions, or biological differentiation. The spectrum of qualities and capabilities between male and female overlaps to a very large extent, just as their hormonal balances overlap, too.

Many females could do just as good a job as males in positions that are traditionally considered male, and, I am sure that the reverse is true, too, even, if it is more difficult to find clear-cut examples of social occupations that are considered to be exclusively female. There is no reason to discriminate in pay or remuneration, and, even, the argument that the male is usually the breadwinner in the family, does not justify the argument, that the female should, therefore, get less pay than her male counterpart.

In the near future, most affluent societies will have to cope with the fact, that there will be less work available, and, that full-employment conditions are not easily obtained anymore. In the future, affluent and industrialised societies will have to recognise the need to distribute the opportunities for work, as well as the obligation to contribute fairly to society, and, it seems, indeed, unreasonable to have two full-time jobs in one family, while another family has to do without a breadwinner.

True, there are often good reasons for such disparities. Unskilled workers, or, those with social and mental health problems or physical ailments, are much more handicapped in their efforts to secure steady employment. Employment will have to be distributed in such a way, that everyone is, at least, given a chance to occupy a steady job, just as the burdens of contribution or taxation are already distributed reasonably well in the more sophisticated democracies. Living standards will have to be kept within a tolerable range by a variety of income re-distribution schemes, but there is no need to discriminate between the sexes.

Similarly, men and women, children and unborn infants, all share in the same basic rights that have been accorded to all citizens, and, it is, therefore, logical and understandable, that feminist groupings object to sexual abuse and harassment, as well as the exploitation of the female body or its image as a sex object, but, feminist groupings do not have the right to deny the existence of differences in the basic biological drives and behaviour patterns of males and females.

They are completely wrong by claiming any jursidiction over the life or body of an unborn child. This child does not belong any more to the body of the mother than her already born children, and, just like any mother would be horrified about the idea to have to kill any of her children, because she despises the father, so is it completely unjustified to abort or kill an unborn child, just because the mother does not agree with the way she was impregnated.

We have to make these distinctions very precisely, otherwise, the endorsement of the valuable aspects of a feminist campaign, or, any other pressure group that has legitimate reasons to press for changes in social attitudes and legislation, will lead to the inadvertant acceptance of other aspects of their policies and aims in a "package deal". This may be highly unjust to some segments of the population, and, it may also be detrimental to society at large, because some objectives and view-points are based upon erroneous conclusions and untenable pre-conceptions.

Similarly, we can fully agree with the claim of some individuals that they are entitled to the same rights of protection as anyone else, regardless of their sexual orientation, but, such an acknowledgement of their basic rights does not mean, that we have to agree with their claim, that their sexual orientation is just as valid as the biological orientation of hetero-sexual attraction.

The fact, that we understand some of the reasons and mechanisms that lead to a homosexual orientation, does not mean, that it will be considered as "completely normal". Such a claim disregards, completely, the fundamental biological background behind the sexual drive.

We know, now, that the male and the female are differentiations at the opposite end of a hormonal balance, and, we know, that the persistence of a hormonal mixture in the male and female gives rise to a large spectrum of secondary sexual and personality characteristics that overlap frequently. Therefore, we know the reasons, why there are many "effeminate" males and "masculine" females, in spite of a clear-cut biological differentation of their sex-organs.

Does such a discrepancy between biological determination and personality traits, which are, perhaps, partially, hormonally determined, give these people the right to go through the extravagant luxury of a "sex change", which is still a sex change in appearance only, and, not a change in biological differentiation? Perhaps, the only exception would be the true "hermaphrodite". Such an individual is an unfortunate victim of a biological confusion, because this individual did not differentiate properly into male or female. A few, simple, "surgical" corrections or accentuations may help such a person to fit, more easily, into a particular social niche of being male or female.

Most of the reasons, why male and female behavioural characteristics in our affluent societies seem to intermingle and fuse into a grey and undifferentiated zone, are culturally determined, and, if the culture of society condones the practice of mutual sexual excitement by manipulative means between members of the same sex, then, such a form of sexual behaviour will flourish. It is free from the consequences and responsibilities of parenthood, and, it resembles the behaviour of masturbation. It is, in essence, a mutually induced and shared act of masturbation, be it between males or females, and, it does allow some of the other emotions of affection and tenderness to play a role.

Certainly, there is a natural tendency to be excited, on occasion, by the beauty of a member of the same sex, and, even, in the sexual play of many animals, we see, that the relief of a sexual urge may be directed towards a member of the same sex, but this occurs only, if the fulfilment of the sexual drive to mate with a member of the opposite sex, is frustrated for one reason or another. Similarly, in social environments where members of the same sex are clustered together for prolonged periods of time, the relief of sexual tensions will come, at least, in part, by homosexual practices. It is utterly ridiculous, however, to equate these understandable variations and aberrations from the "normal" and biologically clearly instructed patterns of behaviour, as forms of behaviour with an equal validity to heterosexuality.

The question, whether or not sexual practices or preferences are entirely a matter of conscience and privacy, is a moot point, because, as we see so clearly, people with homosexual tendencies tend to group together and clamor loudly, and publicly, for an equality in social status. This clamor for equality also implies an equality in the status of homosexuality with heterosexuality. I do not believe, that any healthy society will ever accept this premise, which is biologically so obviously wrong, and, which is such an obvious perversion of the natural sexual drive and its procreational purposes.

Finally, we want to say a few words about this important matter of sexual education and experiences for our maturing youngsters and adolescents. Let us see, what our objectives should be, and, how we can devise a program of education and practical experiences, that has the best chance of raising a generation of loving parents and responsible citizens.

It is important to realise, that sex-education is, in essence, not any different from the education and guidance of the young mind and body as it unfolds itself into a myriad of possibilities, which can not all be actualised. Just as the young mind starts to comprehend more of its environment, in particular, when it reaches the age where primary schooling is about to begin, so is the youngster also becoming aware of the sexual differences between men and women, boys and girls, as well as the marked physical and physiological differences between human beings, as they are born, grow into children and adolescents, become mature adults and, eventually, declining elderly.

The sexual differences, as well as the chronological stages of man's existence, should become part of a clearly taught reality perception, and, there is no need to confuse the issue of sexual differences or hide anatomical and physiological facts. As youngsters learn the facts of their own body and their sexual differentiation, they should also be taught, at least, in an overall outline, how, and why, mating occurs, and, how the infant is eventually born into the world.

Pre-pubertal students should have a firm intellectual grasp over these facts and the relevant biological mechanisms. There is no reason, why they should not be shown the essential anatomical features, either in pictures as well as in real life, but we should not forget that there is likely to be a little natural embarrassment to show one's body completely in the nude. It is not necessary, therefore, to have boys and girls romp around in the nude, as they play games and explore sexual curiosities, but, neither should we try to suppress, completely, the early emotions of curiosity and slight embarrassment by trying to educate the sexes separately.

When children become adolescents, it is very important to teach them, in advance, the wide range of emotions and feelings that are associated with the sexual drive, just as we should teach them the wide range of emotions and behaviour-patterns associated with our instincts of fear and aggression, or, the contradictory trends of self-preservation or egocentricity on the one hand, and the willingness to care for and trust other people.

If we teach our adolescents a coherent picture of human existence, we have a good chance to teach the emotions and behaviour of sexuality in a proper perspective. As I mentioned before, I am convinced, that, sane, future generation will recognise, once again, the overall importance of restraint in all forms of behaviour, including a measure of discipline and self-discipline when handling sexually oriented emotions and impulses.

However, discipline does not mean repression, and, we have to be very careful to keep this dinstinction clearly in mind. In an attitude of discipline, or self-disciline, we fully recognise, and acknowledge, the attractiveness of sexual stimuli, the urge to mate, or to fondle the breasts of a beautiful girl. We recognise, even, the attractiveness of the bodies of boys and girls, regardless of our own sex, but, we also know, and recognise, the need to control our appetites. Just as we know, that we have to be moderate and careful about what we eat and the sort of activities we engage in, so do we have to acknowledge, that an indulgence in sexual pleasures may make us pre-occupied, egocentric and weak people.

Some people will argue, that frequent sexual activity is healthy and has the qualities of a "good excercise program". While such a rationale may apply to married couples, I do not believe, that it is desirable for youngsters to experience all sexual experiences right away. I believe, that it is valuable to reserve the actual mating, or full sexual intercourse, for the person we are going to marry, and, with whom we are going to set-up a family life; with whom we are going to accept the responsibilities of parenthood. I do not want to go so far as to say that sexual intercourse should only take place with its full biological intentions intact. We know, that man's sexual drive is strong, and, that there is an urgent need for a judicious use of population control measures and contraceptive techniques. Besides, we know, also, that youngsters and adolescents will relieve themselves frequently of a strong sexual urge by manipulations or a spontaneous orgasm.

Let us not make hard and fast judgements here, but let us emphasise, that the guidelines for sexual experiences and sexual education should be based on the goal to prepare our youngsters for their role and tasks in society, and, that we should try to make them into happy but responsible, informed and well-balanced, open, but self-disciplined people, who are quite well prepared for the many responsibilities that await them in society, as well as the many chores of becoming parents themselves.

What, exactly, the nature and the extent should be of the premarital sexual experiences of these young people during their phase as adolescents and young adults, should be left to the judgement of future generations. As long as we recognise the validity of the overall goals, and, as long as we remain willing to study, carefully, the physiological and psychological requirements, and consequences, of human beings and their inter-actions, we have no need to fear that sensible answers can not be found.

Certainly, we may expect, that, the atmosphere will become much more open, but, also, much less commercially exploited than we see in most of our affluent societies, today. We certainly expect a much greater awareness of the beneficial and harmful consequences associated with the many facets of human sexuality, and, we fully expect a well-founded attitude of control, moderation and self-discipline to guide future generations between the unwanted extremes of unbridled indulgence and an un-understood repression.

Our contemporary concepts about human sexuality are still hopelessly confused, and, our feelings and emotions are shamelessly exploited by a variety of commercial interests. While I realise, that the reader may have many more questions than have been dealt with in this discussion, I hope, that the outlines of the concepts and ideas we have touched upon, are clear, and, that it is possible to extrapolate from these outlines a course of action and a program of development that will make sexuality, as well as the behavioural aspects associated with it, a more orderly, more tranquil and a more integrated experience; free from the ruthlessly egocentric orientation and commercial exploitation that are the hallmark of affluent societies, today.

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Summary

1. A careful look at the title.
   A long list of legitimate questions.
   Are we stimulated by the promise of violence or sexual excitement?
   The discussion as a "thing of beauty".
   No chance to be "swept off your feet".
   An outline of the topics to be discussed.
   
   
   
2. A look at cellular mechanisms of reproduction.
   Renewal of the "elan vital".
   No evidence for "ageing processes" in cells that reproduce a-sexually.
   Consequences of a severely competitive situation.
   Circumstances never remain exactly the same.
   Speculative images from a primordial protoplasmic past.
   A number of cell-families.
   The Oxygen Revolution; the first pollution crisis.
   
   
   
3. A life-giving range of variability.
   How to avoid being an exact copy of the parental generation.
   Differentiations of the multi-cellular embryo.
   The concept of a "gene-pool".
   The "setting" of a "genetic press".
   The influence of a constant "demand".
   Differentiations of uni-cellular life-forms.
   Dormant genetic potentials, or "anlage".
   Specialisation, and the removal of "excess baggage".
   Questions about the concept of "mutation" as a tool for evolutionary developments.
   Finely flowing adaptations have no use for a "monkey wrench".
   Mixing the possibilities provided by a genetic spectrum.
   Sexual and a-sexual reproduction in the formation of a multi-cellular organism.
   
   
   
4. A definition of the gene-pool.
   All cells of a multi-cellular organism have an identical genetic make-up.
   Sub-dividing a species by evolutionary divergence.
   Classification, and the selection of classifying criteria.
   Splitting the genetic content in half.
   A system of genetic back-up; dominant and recessive traits.
   A very long ladder, with thousands of rungs.
   Not all recessive traits are necessarily a disadvantage.
   Why children from the same parents can be remarkably different.
   Geographical barriers tend to "isolate" parts of a gene-pool.
   A break in sexual compatibility.
   How environmental factors influence the genetic make-up of a population; the phenomenon of "selective cropping".
   The potential for developing or accentuating desirable features must be present.
   A pool of dormant traits and potentials.
   The phenomenon of "adaptative radiation", after an evolutionary break-through.
   Major evolutionary innovations come from "stem animals".
   "Genetic actualisation", and its consequences; a mechanism of environmental feed-back.
   A biological introduction, and an emphasis on multi-cellular behaviour.
   
   
   
5. A brief excursion into the realm of plant life.
   An emphasis on quantity in the mechanisms of reproduction.
   A look at reproductive mechanisms of the fishes.
   The trend towards a safer reproductive environment.
   The chores of successful parental behaviour for bird-species'.
   Precisely programmed and adapted behaviour-patterns.
   A rather elaborate ritual preceding the mating sequence.
   Is loyalty an instinct, or a "free choice"?
   Behavioural flexibility, and the "imprint" of exemplary behaviour.
   Taking the element of "chance" away from the mechanisms of reproduction.
   
   
   
6. The break-through of internal gestation.
   No need to go "forageing for food".
   Birth; a hazardous event.
   The marsupials; evidence for an evolutionary transition.
   Advantages of the mammalian method of reproduction.
   Mammalian reproduction; dominance and sexual exclusivity.
   Sexual or marital fidelity in human beings is not based on a strong biological instinct.
   The "biological heritage" of mankind.
   Male and female roles.
   The organic differentiation into male and female.
   The phenomena of hormonal balance and overlap.
   Confusion in sexual orientation.
   
   
   
7. Secretive Puritan Protestantism.
   Sexual drives have to be channeled into socially acceptable behaviour-patterns.
   The "battle of the sexes".
   Stereotyping male and female roles.
   The stridency of militant feminism.
   A plea for reasonable opinions and attitudes towards sexuality and sexual differentiations.
   Confusing and erroneous attitudes have a short life-span.
   A healthy biological urge.
   Flexibility in beliefs and attitudes, which is a true Homo Sapiens tradition, will be the best safeguard for continuing viability.
   The discrepancy between sexual and social "readiness".
   The sexual tensions of adolescence.
   The difference between beauty and pornography.
   Sexual repression and "sublimation".
   Discipline and self-discipline".
   Since the audience determines the value of its artistic encounters, it has the full right to decide what it finds objectionable or beautiful.
   
   
   
8. The intentions of pornography; a consumerist orientation.
   Sexual drives and attitudes are always strongly egocentrically oriented.
   The egocentricity of the romantic adolescent.
   Normal sexual development leads, as a rule, to a ripening of successful parental behaviour-patterns.
   A need for cautious contraceptive techniques.
   The temptation to "rid ourselves" from the burdens of parenthood.
   The human nature of the embryo and fetus.
   The question of "rape".
   Occasionally, the sexual urge may become coupled with a strongly aggressive instinct of hatred; a psychopathic form of behaviour.
   The feminist obsession with rape.
   Childhood experiences.
   Sexual attraction is a temporary and super-imposed bond upon a deep instinct of competitiveness.
   The egocentric aspects of the behaviour of care and concern.
   
   
   
9. The father, and the unit of mother-and-child.
   The drive towards social integration is based upon the mechanisms of parental concern, and not on sexual attraction.
   The competitiveness of siblings.
   Youngsters and their "sense of justice".
   Unsatisfactory aspects of the practice of sexual promiscuity.
   Strong secondary incentives to become "a pair".
   Problems associated with an unbridled sexual instinct.
   The virtue of self-discipline.
   
   
   
10. Human rights, and the clamor for a complete eqality in the roles of male and female.
    The need to distinguish between common prejudices and biological determinants.
    Necessary and unnecessary disparities.
    No jurisdiction over the life and body of an unborn child.
    A child is not responsible for the way it was conceived.
    Understanding the phenomenon of homosexuality does not mean that it is "normal".
    Sexual confusion is primarily culturally determined.
    Relieving sexual tensions.
    Are sexual preferences and practices a matter of conscience and privacy?
    The importance of sexual education.
    Teaching a wide range of physical and psychological mechanisms.
    No sexual repression, but no sexual indiscipline either.
    The nature and extent of permissible pre-marital sexual experiences will be the subject of an on-going debate.
    A plea for openness in sexual matters, but, there is also a need to curb the exploitation of emotions and desires.

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