STRENGTH AND FLEXIBILITY


the measured response of a lean and fit society




A Study in Thought

sa077



by





Marius Heuff

Chapter 1

Content

The concept of strength; a two-edged definition, reflecting the mechanisms of defense and offense.
Aggressive and defensive modes of behaviour are not limited to the living systems.
Resisting gravitational or shearing stresses, and the expansion of a hot gas.
The quality of "strength" in living systems.
The tendency towards "entropic dissolution" of a living system, even before it has died.
The maintenance-energy required by a living cell.
The "leakage" of ions into the cell represent a constant environmental stress or pressure.
A surplus of energy results in a pressure to grow in size or numbers.
The energy requirements of a large, multi-cellular organism.
Support mechanisms are needed during a period of differentiation and rapid growth.
A gradual withdrawal of the sphere of parental protection.
The consequences of too much and too little protection for the maturation processes of the offspring.
A look at aggressive and defensive behaviour-patterns in human beings.
Surplus energy and the mechanisms of pro-creation.
The maintenance-energy of a species.
A continuous inter-play between all three instinctive poles of behaviour.
Strength and flexibility combine in an efficient inter-play of "play and work".
The human species aggressively manipulates the force-fields of nature in its immediate environment.
Adaptations via the genetic and cultural codes.

The concept "strength" means, in its most precise and "physical" context, the ability to resist a displacement force or to overcome an opposing force. Interestingly, in this "dual" definition, we see reflected the principles of the defense and the offense, because strength, measured as the ability to resist a force, or a form of stress trying to alter a status-quo, has clearly a defensive "feeling", while strength as a measure to overcome an opposing or a resisting force, is characteristic for an act of "aggression".

Indeed, we do not necessarily have to think in terms of living systems, because strength may mean the ability of a solid, such as a piece of wood or metal, to resist the force of weight, or a shearing stress, when this piece of material is used in the construction of a fairly large structure, such as a house or a bridge.

The aggressive or expanding principle of a strong force is clearly seen, when we look at the ability of a hot gas to expand and push-down a cylinder or piston within an internal combustion engine, or drive a bullet out of the barrel of a gun in the explosion of gun-powder, which is, after all, the formation of a hot gas due to the burning of a highly combustible mixture of chemicals. The explosive expansion of this gas provides the energy for a bullet, grenade or piston.

However, we would, indeed, like to concentrate, here, on the concepts of strength and flexibility as they apply to living systems, and, after discussing a variety of principles of operation which we can see when we look around us, we will discuss the requirements of a healthy social grouping. This will show, clearly, that the features of strength and flexibility are an expression of an organism's ability to stay alive, or, to seek actively for an expansion of its possibilities to exist.

The reader will be quite familiar, I assume, with the definition of a living organism or system. We have seen, how a living system depends for its existence, first of all, on a certain minimum flow of energy, which is needed to "repair", or maintain, a large number of labile chemical compounds and on-going chemical reaction-patterns. If this energy is insufficient, these labile biochemical compounds fall-apart because of a "run-off" to their lowest possible state of energy-existence. This happens, when there is an inadequate replenishment or replacement of these fragile, labile and constantly depleting substances. During a condition of minimum energy requirements for proper maintenance, we assume, that the energy-flow is just able to compensate for this tendency towards an entropic dissolution of the living system.

As we have discussed before, this tendency towards entropy or chaos is a characteristic shared by all fluid or labile systems. Such systems depend, therefore, on a continuous influx of new "replacement parts" to maintain their existence. We have also seen, and discussed the fact, that the rate of energy-influx required for this basic maintenance, depends on the rate of chemical or fluid "happenings", and, therefore, the level of a minimum maintenance-energy depends upon the temperature of a living system. In a fluid system such as a water-fall, the minimum influx depends on the rate of flow which constitutes the rapid or the water-fall, and, we know, that a large water-fall requires a much larger "maintenance-energy" or influx of new water, compared to a small one, but, then, the large water-fall can "carry-out" a lot more "work", if suitably exploited, compared to a small one.

However, we want to concentrate on the living systems. The theoretical minimum level of energy required for any system existing under a particular set of circumstances, is determined by the minimum energy needed by this system to "rest quietly", without deteriorating from a condition of health and stability. We assume, then, that there is no specific stress from the environment upon this living system, and, we assume, also, that the organism is not engaged in a process of growth or pro-creation. The stresses to be counter-acted during a basic maintenance level are only those resulting from the internal tendency to decay towards a state of entropic disintegration, and, in this definition, we include those stresses of the "environment" which are chronic or constant, such as the leakage of unwanted or harmful ions and other chemical substances into the cellular protoplasm through the semi-permeable membrane that surrounds every living cell.

Indeed, we know, that a living cell is subjected, not only, to the tendencies of disintegration inherent in the diverging potentials or energy-gradients of its biochemical systems, but, we also know, that, one of the most significant constant requirements of the living cell is due to a constant "leakage" of ions from the environment into the cell. These ions leak into the cell because of an existing concentration-gradient, and the movement is made possible, because the cell membrane is porous for many small molecules. As a result, these ions have to be "pumped back" into the surrounding watery environment, just like a leaky boat has to spend, continuously, some energy to remove the water that is flowing into its bilges.

We also know, that most living organisms do not exist in such a precarious state that they can barely maintain their existence; where they have to rely on the absence of any other environmental stress, as well as a steady level of internal entropic tendencies, in order to maintain their existence. Most living organisms have access to a flow of energy that far exceeds these minimum requirements, and, they can then "grow", either, in the form of a simple enlargement followed by a cell-division, or, as a multi-cellular organism on its way to become a full-grown adult. The task of growing and synthesising new structures for the living organisation out of the building supplies that are present in its environment, costs energy, and, the "pressure to grow", or, the zest and vitality with which an organism engages in an inter-play with its environment, represents a measure of the surplus energy-flow that is available. We have defined on a number of occasions this surplus energy as the "elan vital", or the vitality of an organism.

The surplus energy of an organism is, therefore, used, primarily, to "fulfill" its natural, biologically programmed goals, such as growth and reproduction, as seen in the processes of sexual pro-creation or mitotic division. We know, that, especially the animal species', often, have to spend a great deal of energy to get their food or catch their prey, but, the reward in terms of energy captured must always exceed the amount of energy spent, otherwise, the organism would not be able to survive. In nature, one can not "borrow" now, and "pay-back" later.

The energy requirements of a large, multi-cellular organism for the purpose of maintaining its existence, such as capturing food, fleeing from predators and coping with a variety of stressful fluctuations in its environment, are quite comparable to the concepts of maintenance which we elaborated for the single cell, but, because these energies are required "in addition", so to speak, to the basic cellular requirements, we like to group them under the category of "surplus energy", in particular, because the boundaries between what is strictly needed and what is an energy-expenditure above and beyond the basic necessities, is difficult to delineate.

As long as a multi-cellular organism has to devote a very large percentage of its energies to the formation and growth of its cellular communities, the organ-systems, we see, that it requires, indeed, an abundant and constant supply of energy, and, it requires an extremely constant and protective environment. Once the organism has been born, we see a gradual shift of these requirements away from an emphasis on growth, towards a state of "independent existence". As the organism matures, its support from parents, guardians and other mechanisms of protection, is gradually withdrawn. These support mechanisms kept the levels of stress artificially below those prevailing "in reality", in the real, unprotected environment of the organism.

As a result of this gradual withdrawal of the sphere of protection, the organism has to spend more energy for its defense, but, we see, also, quite clearly, how the final touches of maturation and a growth into competent adulthood require an adequate process of unfolding of those "adult conditions of existence". As we have discussed, a prolonged period of protection prolongs the time-period of maturation, and, eventually, creates a dependence of the adult organism on these protective circumstances, which have then become a liability, rather than an asset. On the other hand, too early an exposure to the unprotected world, may lead to a loss of life, or, a stunted growth, as too much energy has to be channeled, prematurely, into a defensive posture, and this accentuation of the defensive pole hampers the nomal unfolding of capabilities and faculties.

For the social organisms, like the members of mankind, too early and too marked an accentuation of the defensive pole of our instinctive behaviour-patterns, interferes with the ability to place trust in other people, and, it prevents the unfolding of a measure of openness and sympathy, so necessary to build-up trustful and satisfying relationships. We have dicussed these aspects before, and, we will do so, again, when we analyse the features of a strong and flexible living system. Here, we want to continue our line of thought and discuss, how, and why, the surplus energy flowing through a living system reflects a measure of strength, because this surplus energy can be used, either, as a source of energy to fuel "defensive reactions", or, as a means to carry-out "aggressive and expansive" behaviour-patterns.

We will also see, that an organism is neither completely defensive or completely aggressive in the way it spends this surplus energy, and, we will see, that we can not judge the moral value of these contrasting poles by merely condemning all "aggressive or expansive" behaviour-patterns, and, by considering defensive behaviour-patterns to be always completely legitimate.

The surplus energy, or elan vital, will contribute, greatly, to its ability to survive and participate in the processes of pro-creation, especially, if it uses this excess energy in a way that allows it to respond flexibly to the ever-changing internal and external circumstances. However, here again, we see, that the definition of "surplus energy" depends a great deal on our field of vision. If we look, only, at the energy that is immediately required to sustain life, at any particular moment, we see, indeed, that less energy is required than is usually available, but, if we include in the necessary conditions for survival a measure of health, as well as the requirements of the survival of the species, we see, that the necessary level of energy is, indeed, much larger.

If a normal and healthy organism is subjected to a threatening force, or "stress", it will react to this stress quickly and competently, and, it "decides" then, decisively, whether to attack the threat or to avoid it. A healthy and viable organism will not make any serious mistakes in this pattern of decisions, because a serious mistake could be fatal and would certainly be harmful. Similarly, a promising or luring feature in the environment will only evoke a positive or aggressive response, or, a movement towards the source of a positive stimulus, if the organism senses a clear-cut need to do so.

We see, by and large, that normal animal behaviour falls well within these restrictions, because a normal, healthy animal will seldom tackle a threat or obstacle, unless it knows, that it is fairly easy to win. Similarly, an animal will only hunt and kill a prey, if it is hungry and has a physiological need to do so. A normal animal will not spend much more energy than is necessary, and, if it has satisfied its hunger or its sexual drive, it will contently fall-asleep, somewhere, in a protected environment, where it is not likely to be surprised by an enemy.

We see, therefore, a continuous inter-play between all three instinctive poles of behaviour, and, in a normal, healthy animal, the energy expenditure is efficient and free from unnecessary waste. Certainly, young animals "frolic around", just like human children, and, this is not really a wasteful use of excess energy, because these youngsters need to develop their musculo-skeletal systems, as well as the learning-programs of their central nervous system, before they can become the competent, mature adults that have to raise and protect the next generation. Strength and flexibility combine in an efficient behaviour of "play and work", in order to accomplish the necessary tasks with a minimum of energy, a minimum of danger or confusion, as well as a maximum "return" for energy spent. Strength, then, becomes, on the one hand, a measure to withstand stress and adversity, as well as a means to obtain an adequate food-supply, or, to change opposing or threatening forces into beneficial ones.

Of course, the human species, in particular, has exploited the ability to manipulate the force-fields in its environment for its own benefit. Most other animal species' are much more "passive", and, they, either avoid the obstacles or adverse force-fields, or, they adapt physiologically to them. For example, animals adapt slowly and laboriously to the harsher climates on earth, while man makes use of his manipulating abilities and creates around himself, by his clothing and his shelter, the climatological conditions which are most suitable to him.

Here, we see an important difference in approach in order to resist a condition of stress, but, both ways, the genetic and the cultural adaptations, provide a measure of strength or resilience to the evolving and adapting species'. The genetic code with the slow changes in the anatomy and physiology of an organism, is the slower, but, also, a more durable route of adaptation, while the human way, or, the way of manipulation and the transfer of knowledge and expertise to make these manipulations possible, is the quick and vulnerable way, where man changes his immediate environment with technological aids, rather than a physiological and anatomical change in his constitution.

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Chapter 2

Content

The reason for the fragility of the organisation of life relates to the advantages of the properties of flexibility and reactability.
Inorganic existence is characterised by the inability to make use of relatively "weak" energy-potentials.
A spectrum of variability that is presented, with each generation, to the forces of natural selection.
Flexibility; the ability to find a possibility of existence by evading or avoiding unfavourable circumstances.
The life-form has a limited ability to withstand mechanical, physical, thermal or chemical force-fields.
How the mechanisms of strength and flexibility influence our individual existence.
Mental and physical faculties are in the service of survival.
The function of a social organisation.
A look at the faculty of "intelligence".
Flexibility remains a random and essentially blind search for a better possibility to exist, unless the organism has the ability to "picture" its surroundings; the origins of a reality perception.
Drifting blindly through the environment.
A uni-dimensional environment with a vector-gradient between beneficial and harmful conditions of existence.
The hunt; the emergence of goal-directed behaviour-patterns, and the ability to "picture" a sphere of awarenesses.
An increasingly complex mosaic of environmental stimuli has to be "processed" by the central nervous system.
Conscious awareness reflects the ability to think and speak.
Our "inability" to visualise a sphere of awarenesses without verbalisable concepts.
The concept of knowledge.
The evolution of sense-organs, and the neurological machinery to come to a coherent, appropriate and, therefore, "intelligent" behavioural response.
Intelligence does not necessarily mean the presence of verbalisable awarenesses.
The parallel developments of cerebral and mental classification systems.
The "balance of forces" a child is exposed to, while growing-up.
The balance between the forces of the "elan vital", and a variety of challenging force-fields from the social environment.
The advantages of embryogenesis in utero, and breast-feeding in infancy; factors that determine mammalian viability and mobility.
The remarkable influence of psychological abilities for the species of mankind.

Flexibility is a remarkable phenomenon, if we give it some thought. Of course, the essence, or "raison d'etre", for the fragility of the organisation of life, is based upon the advantages of the property of flexibility. By being fragile and flexible, organic chemical sequences can take place, and, they can provide a path for the dissipation of captured solar energy, while the more stable, inorganic compounds have a level of internal resistance that is too great to make them useful as a pathway for the dissipation of captured solar energy.

A great deal of strength or internal resistance can be a disadvantage, if the possibility to exist depends on the ability to make use of relatively "weak" energy-potentials. A rock will not decay if it "gets cold", or, if it does not receive a minimal amount of maintenance-energy, but, neither can it react to stimuli, move, photo-synthesise other molecules, or function as a channel for the dissipation of captured solar energy. Its molecules are captured in a rigid crystalline lattice, and, they can only rock back and forth within their cage in the crystalline lattice, whenever they are bombarded by the electro-magnetic energy that is all around them.

The ability to make use of small energy-gradients is made possible by the flexibility and fragility of the living organisation, and, it reflects, necessarily, the fragility of its biochemical components. Therefore, the potentials and characteristics of life are the same features that make these systems so fragile and vulnerable to severe chemical, thermal and physical stress. The living system is so remarkably vulnerable to disintegration and decay, whenever the circumstances exceed the fragile possibilities of existence, just because it has become dependent upon a variety of energy-dissipating functions or inter-actions with its environment.

This same aspect of flexibility, or adaptability to subtle changes in environmental circumstances, is reflected in the variability and adaptability of the population of a species. We have discussed, extensively, how the sexual mode of reproduction is the main reason for this range of variability in a population, or, rather, we have seen, that the reason for the existence of the sexual mode lies in the fact, that it provides for a spectrum of variability upon which the forces of natural selection can excercise their influence by selecting and propagating desirable traits, while discouraging or weeding-out those traits that are indifferent or undesirable.

We have also seen, how, and why, flexibility is lost, at least, to some extent, if a species has become precisely adapted to a particular ecological "niche", or set of environmental circumstances. All these mechanisms or principles of operation surface again, as we look at the problems and requirements of individuals trying to find a niche in their particular social environment.

Flexibility is, therefore, the ability to find a sustained or continuing possibility to exist by evading or avoiding those forces or circumstances, which are too difficult to resist, or, which are too strong to overcome by an act of aggressive manipulation. The ability of the living systems to withstand mechanical, physical, thermal or chemical forces is quite limited because of the fragile nature of its components. Therefore, flexibility, adaptability, the search for alternative modes of existence, for alternate sources of energy, or a different set of circumstances, is the main principle upon which the viability of a living organisation rests. As soon as this ability to be flexible and agile has been impaired, the organism can not get "out of the way" of those environmental influences or existing force-fields, which pose a serious threat, and, it does not take long, before the organism is in danger of losing its essential coherence. It dies and disintegrates because of the inability to adapt, give-way or withstand a variety of internal or external forms of stress or displacement forces.

Most of these, more theoretical considerations have been discussed extensively before, and, we intend to discuss, here, primarily, the more practical applications of the concepts of strength and flexibility. Let us analyse, therefore, the forces we all are exposed to. In spite of a great variety of living conditions and circumstances of existence, we see, that, most of our existential concerns, as well as most of the forces we are exposed to, are comparable, even, if the specifics vary immensely and continuously, from moment to moment, as well as from one indvidual to the next.

Let us discuss, how the principles of strength and flexibility affect our position in life, in society and in relation to our surroundings, and, let us discuss the variety of flexible approaches that are open to us, as we try to cope with the stress-full force-fields of our social or natural environment. This aspect of flexibility determines, in essence, the final outcome of the struggle for survival. In this light, we will also discuss, how, and why, disease processes, accidents, as well as ageing processes, affect our viability and social relationships, and, we will see, how important the ability to grasp and understand, foresee and anticipate, really is, especially, when we look at the strong, instinctive desire to cling to life in a more or less comfortable mode of existence.

Finally, we should devote a great deal of attention to the meaning and concept of a "healthy society". Why do we need a social environment? Do we always need a society, or a social grouping, to sustain life? What do we mean by the word-symbol "society"? What is healthy and normal? How do we define health, a normal existence or a normal way of life? How do these definitions apply to the individual, and, how do we have to define these concepts, when trying to delineate the characteristics of a strong and healthy, yet intelligent and flexible social entity?

Before we can answer these questions, let us concern ourselves with the definition of the faculty of intelligence, and, if you would ask me, how to define intelligence, we have to go back, briefly, to the principles of mammalian evolution. Again, we have discussed these aspects quite extensively on previous occasions, as you know, but, it is obvious, that flexibility would remain a random and essentially blind search for a better possibility to exist or to maintain viability, if the organism would not have the capability to "picture" its suroundings.

If the surroundings remain a complete "blank", the organism can not direct its movements, or its capability of flexibility, in any particular direction, and, its existence and survival would then depend, entirely, on a series of chance-happenings. If such an organism would "drift" through the surroundings, (e.g. the sea), it would encounter circumstances that are fairly homogeneous. A primitive organism, such as a single, freely floating cell, could then react, simply, with a shut-down of its metabolic functions, whenever it would encounter an environment that was detrimental to its existence.

However, such a haphazard way of trying to stay alive is not very efficient, nor, does it make use of all the possibilities that exist in the environment. Yet, all vegetating life-forms, and, perhaps, most uni-cellular organisms, depend for their existence on such an essentially "blind" system of exploring possibilities of existence. As we have discussed before, many free-floating cellular organisms delevelop the capability to move-away from a negative environment and move actively towards a positive stimulus. In essence, the "space" surrounding such an organism is uni-dimensional, but the complex, large animals, which came to rely on a complicated pattern of hunting skills, would never be able to capture sufficient food or energy, if they would have to "drift" so haphazardly through their surroundings.

We have seen, how a variety of special sense-organs, such as sight, smell and hearing, have the ability to enlarge the territory of the "known surroundings" enormously. The enlargement of the territory these animals can "sense", means, that the surroundings are becoming more differentiated. Only then, is it possible to distinguish between positive and negative areas in a large and three-dimensional sphere of existence, and, only then, is it possible to develop the capability of efficient, goal-directed behaviour-patterns.

Now, a "picture" emerges in the awareness-sphere of an organism, which lets this organism "see", where it can obtain food, shelter or a mate, and, where there is danger. Rather, we should state these mechanisms the other way around. The slow, evolutionary development of the specialised organs that are able to sense stimuli coming from a significant distance, together with the parallel development of the central nervous system, (building the necessary connecting path-ways ensuring that this increasingly complex mosaic of environmental stimuli can be "processed" and will lead to an integrated and useful behavioural response); these evolutionary developments are the foundation for a pattern of behaviour that includes a quality we call "awareness", or alertness.

However, we are well aware of the fact, that animal awareness, or consciousness, is, primarily, a state of being alert, but, this state of being alert is a state we recognise in ourselves as a state that is associated with a great deal of mental activity; with "conscious" awarenesses that indicate the ability to think and speak. This means, that we have the faculty to manipulate a large variety of language-symbols. We realise, now, better than ever before, that the ability to experience a rapid flow of verbalisable thoughts or word-symbols in the form of ideas, concepts and beliefs, is a capability that has been developed to a remarkable extent in the human species.

At the present time, we have no evidence that any other species has developed this capability to the same extent, but, it is very likely, that, indeed, the still surviving anthropoid species', which are closely related to us in evolutionary history, also have a rudimentary capability to form concepts, and, it is likely, that, they, too, are able to represent awarenesses with communicable symbols.

It is unlikely, however, that this "anlage", or rudimentary capability, plays a significant role in the survival ability of the anthropoids who live in the wild, while the human species has become so dependent upon its ability to form conscious and verbalisable symbolic representations, that we can not even imagine a type of conscious awareness that does not include the ability to form verbalisable concepts or notions. The concept of "knowledge" implies the possession of a coherent structure of conscious and verbalisable awarenesses, forming, together, a framework of beliefs with which we interpret our sense-impressions and form a sphere of reality-perceptions.

However, the concept of intelligence implies more than just knowledge, because it applies, not only, to this sphere of verbalisable and communicable awarenesses. The flexible animals have the same range of sense-organs as we, and, some species' excell and surpass us in the capabilities of one sense-organ or another.

As we discussed, the mechanisms of natural evolution provide a species, not only, with a range of special sense-organs in order to enable it to master its environment and develop a goal-directed behaviour-pattern, but, it also provides the neurological machinery to come to a coherent, appropriate, and, thereby, "intelligent" behavioural response. Let us emphasise, then, once more, the concept, that, intelligent behaviour does not imply the existence of conscious, verbalisable awarenesses, but, intelligence is a form of flexible behaviour that is adequate and appropriate; where the animal uses its faculties efficiently and finely in tune with the circumstances in which it finds itself.

Even, without the faculties of symbolic representation and voluntary image-recall, (which are so prominent in the evolution of the species of mankind), we see, that the brain of the behaviourally flexible species', stores, categorises and classifies the incoming sense-impressions, and, we have discussed, on previous occasions, how the mental systems of classifying conscious and verbalisable awarenesses allow the human being to construct a structure of conscious beliefs. These mental classification systems are a mirror-image, or a parallel development, of the cerebral classification mechanisms, which natural evolution developed in all behaviourally flexible, goal-oriented and intelligent animal species'.

This short review of mammalian evolution, and, the equally short introduction to the nature of man, should allow us to focus, now, more specifically upon the series of questions we have raised in relation to the characteristics of strength and flexibility in individualised and socially integrated human existence.

Let us review, once more, briefly, the changes that occur in the "balance of forces", as a child grows-up, goes through adolescence, and, eventually, enters, somewhere, the society "at large". By the balance of power, or, the balance that exists between the various forces an individual is subjected to, we are thinking, here, mainly, about the force or energy supplied by the elan vital, as well as a variety of protective and challenging forces that find their origin in the social environment of an individual. We have seen, how, during embryogenesis, and throughout the early phases of childhood, nearly all the surplus energy of the elan vital is channeled into growth, and, for this reason, the child, before and after birth, needs a steady and highly protective environment. It can not take care of its own needs; it can not defend itself against the hostile and potentially hostile forces of its surroundings, and, it needs a steady supply of readily digestible food, which has to be provided by the mother.

One of the major evolutionary advantages of the mammalian species' is the combination of embryogenesis and early development "in utero" with a stage of infancy that is characterised by breast-feeding. Both factors provide a high degree of protection and viability, because the mother is far more mobile during pregnancy, compared to a species that has to hatch eggs that have been deposited in a nest, and, during the early post-natal period, the newly born infant can be carried around and the mother does not have to leave it alone in order to seek food. The need to protect the vulnerable infant seems to have reached a peak in the human species, because no other fully developed mammalian newborn is so helpless as the human infant. The infant can not walk for another two years, and, it does not really develop its full physical and mental potentials, until, at least, fifteen or twenty years have gone by.

Even, then, psychologically, or mentally, the individual keeps maturing, and, this is the reason, why the older members of the human species are often remarkably successful in maintaining a position of power and influence on the basis of mental or psychological abilities, in spite of the fact, that, physically, they have already been on the decline since their late twenties.

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Chapter 3

Content

Coping with a gradually enlarging circle of contacts during childhood.
Schooling is a complex process of learning skills, acquiring knowledge, and adopting attitudes that make the individual as competent as possible.
Depending on physical strength for making a living is a precarious and short-lived possibility of existence.
A tenuous foot-hold in society.
The freedom to drift onto "skid-row".
Most people enter society at the same level, or class, they were born into.
Help from parents, friends and acquaintances.
For a privileged, wealthy elite, the cultivation of the "right" social contacts and social skills becomes more important than acquiring professional skills and qualifications.
The off-spring has to be pliable and dull enough to be molded into the caste of their privileged origins.
Exceptional skills and talents require the right circumstances, as well as competent teachers in order to develop fully.
The importance of being able to earn a living "with ease".
Why the available vital energies are quickly "used-up".
The balance between prestige and financial security.
A "career" has a tendency to absorb all the available vital energies.
The "maintenance-energy" of the social status-quo absorbs an ever greater portion of the available elan vital.
The pressures of competitive strife.
The ability to sustain a life of chronic pressures requires the ability to anticipate the most likely changes taking place in the near future.
The life of a "career consumer" represents a precarious position.
The burden of having debt-obligations.
Society "lives-off" big spenders without mercy.
How is the affluent, debt-ridden consumer going to adjust to rising pressures?
Often, flexibility has been lost, and there is no choice, but to "stick it out".
Attitudes of resignation, and the smouldering tensions of anger and resentment.
Major factors play a role in the many events taking place in modern, affluent societies.
The spectre of an affluent society committing suicide.

From early childhood on, the faculties of the young child are beginning to unfold, and the sphere of protection is slowly being withdrawn; at least, to some exent. Initially, the sphere of protection is merely loosened to accomodate for the emergence of physiological capabilities, such as feeding, walking and dressing, but, later, as the child enters school, this atmosphere of protection is lessened further, because the child has to learn to cope with an enlarged circle of human contacts, such as previously unknown children and adults of the school environment. The children become aware of the fact, that, each one of them is only one amongst many, and, that they are, often, in competition with each other. Similarly, they learn, that there are many more sources of authority than their own parents, and, the teachers have to compete with parents as a source of authority, guidance and protection.

The entire school-period is characterised by a rapid mental and physical growth, but, this period of physical growth is coming to an end near maturity, or, during the last stages of adolescence. However, physically and psychologically, the individual is only just beginning to enter the social environment as an individual in his or her own right, when this period of schooling and growing-up has been completed.

We have seen, that schooling is, indeed, a complex process of learning social skills, as well as cultivating knowledge and attitudes that will make the individual as competent as possible. The higher the skills, knowledge and behavioural abilities have been developed, the more opportunities for further training or special assignments are opened-up to these young adults. The energy of the elan vital is, therefore, primarily used during the later stages of adolescence to give the individual access to a variety of job-opportunities and social positions, but, we also see a remarkable degree of differentiation taking place between young people during this stage of adolescence and secondary schooling. Those, who can learn well have chosen a route that opens the universities to them, while those with lesser intellectual skills, have chosen a trade as a way to make a living, and, youngsters, who are exceptionally gifted in arts, sports or athletics, are given a chance to make a professional career with their special talents.

We should, indeed, pity those youngsters, who still have not found their "niche" by the time they are through high school, or, who have reached the age, where they can leave school legally and are trying to find a rather precarious existence with uncertain employment opportunities in the non-skilled labour-force. As long as they are young, vigorous and healthy, and, willing to work hard, it is usually not difficult for them to find work, then here, then there, and the abundance of short-term, physically demanding work, gives them a chance to drift from one place to the next.

However, if they have the misfortune to become ill or the victim of a serious accident, or, if they become tied-down by marriage and family-obligations, or, if they succumb to the temptations of a drug-addiction, then, the road to social deprivation, as well as an unhealthy life of chronic unemployment and undisciplined behaviour, will quickly make it very difficult for them to reach any position of financial or job-security, and their hold upon a position in society will remain tenuous.

In our modern, free-enterprise societies, there is generally a great deal of freedom to drift into such a precarious social position, and, once an individual is stranded on "skid-row", the chances of escaping and making something of life, after all, are not good. Not many people really care, whether these people on skid-row escape to a better way of life, or die prematurely from an unhealthy life of poverty, disease and drug-addiction.

However, most of us find a niche somewhere in society, and, we develop a sufficient level of anxiety for the miseries of abject poverty and social deprivation to avoid being stranded at these lowest social strata with their atmosphere of crime and chronic despair. Yet, we should point-out, here, that most people enter a niche in society, which is only partially dependent upon the capabilities they have developed at school. Most people enter the society at the same level they came from, and, this means, that the help given by members of the family and friends, determines, to a large extent, whether or not an individual lands a job somewhere.

The factor of help from parents or family members becomes more important, if the society is firmly divided into social classes, or "strata", and the youngsters from the privileged classes have, from the start, an important advantage in the fact, that their parents will do everything in their power to give their off-spring a niche in their own privileged class. Indeed, in the polarised society, the cultivation of the "right" social contacts and social skills, is more important than the acquisition of professional skills and qualifications. In a closed and privileged society, the over-riding concern of education for the elite becomes an effort to instill in their privileged off-spring a sense of belonging and a sense of loyalty to their class. Most of the time, the youngsters are pliable and dull enough to let themselves be molded in the caste of their privileged origins, but, there are always a few, who rebel against this approach and want to find out for themselves, what life and society is all about.

However, it is our objective to discuss the balance of forces, or, rather, the energy-levels that play a role in the life of human beings, and, the purpose of reviewing these familiar social mechanisms, is to remind us, that, indeed, it becomes so much "easier", and, that it takes much less energy, skill, effort or training, to enter a certain niche in society, if there are powerful forces lending a helping hand.

True, many positions are not open to the helping hand of influential relatives. An athlete or an artist, and, even, a highly competent scholar reach the pinnacle of success, because they have worked very hard for it, and, they had the capability to make it on their own. Yet, having had the right opportunities and most competent teachers at the right moment in a developing career, are circumstances that depend, to a large extent, on luck, and, these factors are not free from the influences of help and support from powerful friends or relatives. Therefore, these additional forces or force-fields working towards the fulfilment of a far-distant goal, or the finding of a proper social niche, will not be able to propel an individual into such a place of prominence without the presence of an adequate measure of talents and skills, but, these forces may certainly help in differentiating from a group of competing individuals, those, who will reach the top of success and fame, as well as those, who will remain a competent but somewhat neglected colleague on the sidelines.

If we go back to the average individual, the average professional or wage-earner, who is able to develop a solid skill and can, then, earn his living in society with a measure of "ease", we see a variety of interesting developments, because, if the energy required to make a living does not absorb all the energies, (as it usually does in an artistic or athletic career), we see a variety of tendencies, activities or behaviour-patterns appear, which are, in essence, an effort to give this surplus elan vital an outlet. If we look at an academic career, we see, that the surplus elan vital is quickly "used-up" in career-related activities, such as the acquisition of additional degrees, the effort to accomplish something in a research project, or, to write a series of articles for a professional publication. Or, the elan vital is absorbed by a power-struggle; an intrigue for the top post in the academic hierarchy, with all the social manoeuvering and posturing that goes with it.

These activities often surpass any desire or effort to "make more money"; at least, this is usually the case, whenever a research academician is young and still building-up his professional standing. Then, we see, that the financial aspects are often somewhat neglected, and, the individual lives usually soberly, somewhat in financial bondage, and, often, without a sharp eye towards the dangers of financial dependence and an inflexible, service-dependent life-style. Later, when the person realises, that, he or she has reached the top of the academic ladder and is better of consolidating the present position, it becomes easier to relax and acquiesce in the knowledge, that the summit of power and prestige has been reached. Then, the awareness of financial insecurity and relative material poverty may become somewhat depressing and demoralising, and, it may become a stress-factor in its own right.

People, who work in society without the aura of academic or artistic prestige, concentrate, from the beginning, on measuring success in a combination of power and wealth. Sometimes, the accent is, primarily, on power, in particular, if an individual is successful in various social organisations, he or she may become a full-time civic leader or finds himself, eventually, as a candidate for a political leadership position. Others, may find a measure of power and influence in the position they reach within a large company, and, again others, concentrate on displaying an ostentatious consumerist life-style, which leaves them financially in bondage to the banks or the finance companies.

All these different approaches have an essential feature in common, and, it is this common denominator, which we want to high-light. In essence, all these different mechanisms, regardless, whether we see a complete absorption by a chosen career in the arts or the sports, in academia or the labour-unions, a political career, a career in the financial or business world, or a career as an ostentatious consumer, they all have in common the fact, that the individual uses all the energy or vitality at his or her disposal. Then, the individual reaches an equilibrium between the energy he or she can bring to "his performance" in society, (with or without the help of a circle of friends, supporters and admirers), and, the effort or energy it takes to maintain a status-quo of success or prestige.

Rarely is it possible for people, who are so absorbed in the energy-requirements of their busy daily activities, to realise, fully, and without a paralysing fear or anxiety, that they can not take the continuation of this energy-flow for granted; nor, can they be sure, that the energy-requirements for the "maintenance of the status-quo" will not increase. As we all know, an academician or an artistic performer, energetic and proud of his recent work and success, will soon find, within a few years time, other people coming-up behind him. These people are equally as intelligent, energetic and anxious to shine, and the position of success, privilege and power, occupied by an older colleague, becomes a target of envy and ambition.

The same applies to the individual, who holds a position of fame and prestige in the world of sports, and, it soon becomes evident, at least, to an outsider, that, to maintain such a position will require an ever greater amount of energy, in spite of a declining elan vital. Similarly, we see, how political leaderships of one sort or another, and, even, the positions of corporate power and influence, are constantly "under pressure". True, some people remain very agile and flexible, and, they seem to thrive under a constant pressure, which they are able, either by design or lucky accident, to keep within manageable limits.

We see, indeed, a few people who are able to endure, for many years in a row, the stress of prestige, power or fame. However, we will see, that many intelligent adjustments and flexible adaptations will have been carried-out by those, who survive the vagaries of fame and power, and, we will, indeed, see, that such people did not maintain their positions by relying somewhat blindly on the abundance of their elan vital, nor, were they blind for the changing circumstances of themselves and their environment. Therefore, in order to sustain a life of chronic pressures, an individual has to be intelligent enough to anticipate the most likely changes that may take place, and, those, who anticipate, most precisely, the developments of the future, are able to adjust with a minimum of effort to these changing circumstances.

A "career consumer", who succumbs to the temptation of enjoying a limited social success with the help of a costly but flamboyant life-style, is in a most dangerous predicament. If he goes into debt, he knows, or should know, that he impoverishes himself continuously, because, as long as he is carrying the burden of a debt, he has to pay a price, and, sometimes, the price may be quite high. In addition, the price paid for servicing a debt is money that is entirely unavailable to "show off" in a consumerist way of life, and the chronic frustrations associated with "being in debt" can often only be "forgotten", or soothed, by a new spree of spending, or, the dangerous habit of consuming alcohol and other drugs.

Here, the only adjustment is to get rid of the debt as soon as possible, but, for the consumer, this is precisely the most difficult step to take. Therefore, the "career consumer" is the one, who is most in danger of being over-taken by worsening conditions of a deteriorating health and an insecure employment, making his position in society steadily more precarious and his life more miserable. The dependence on a large, regular pay-cheque, is, in essence, a curse, because it makes an individual a slave of his employer, and, even, then, he is never sure of his job. These chronic anxieties are a severe stress on the individual, accelerating a decline in the flow of the elan vital that comes with advancing age. The high level of income is a prime target for taxation, and the social environment "lives-off" these big spenders, without mercy.

The cost of debt-financing may suddenly rise astronomically, if interest-rates spiral upwards, whenever our politicians and their economic advisors manipulate the tools of interest-rates in a desperate fight against inflation. Sickness, accidents or chronic anxieties, debilitating habits, dangerous levels of alcoholic consumption, rising taxes and financial burdens, job insecurity, all these factors penalise the affluent consumer in a crippling way, and, these mechanisms are the main reason for the paradox, that, those, blessed with affluence, have long since ceased to feel happy and privileged about it. All they are aware of, is the constant struggle of trying to hold-on to what they have, and, what they actually own or possess, seems such a meager accomplishment compared to the dreams of affluence, which are so crudely advertised by the commercial interests.

How is the affluent, debt-ridden consumer going to adjust and adapt to the rising pressures on his position in society? The problem is, that it requires a radical solution, and, only a few people have the ability to extricate themselves. The others have no choice, but to stick it out in their social entrapment, and, to make the best of it. They learn, eventually, to accept their anxieties and uncertainties. Once the children have grown-up, they can breathe a little easier. They console themselves with each other, and, with the fact, that so many people are in the same position. Because there are so many financially entrapped consumers, they become a powerful political force, and the politicians will have to listen to them.

The adjustment of a majority of entrapped, affluent consumers, is, therefore, represented by an attitude of resignation, as well as anger towards those, who have enticed them to become entrapped, or, who interfere with their efforts to obtain an ever increasing income of money. The fact, that there are so many trapped consumers makes them politically powerful, and, their attitudes and resentments determine, indeed, the atmosphere that prevails in our affluent, consumer-oriented, free-enterprise societies.

However, what happens, when their politicians can not get them out of their predicament? What happens, if the expectations of ever-rising affluence do not materialise? What happens, if the free-enterprise societies "grind to a halt"? Resentment and anger may well destroy, then, what is left of these free-enterprise societies, and, we may witness the curious spectacle of an affluent society committing suicide, while it is still well-fed and free from significant military pressures from the outside.

Again, let us return to consider the energy balance, because we are trying to develop a definition of a normal, healthy, lean and flexible society, and, we will try to outline a definition of health and normality. Then, we will discuss, how an affluent society could correct its tendency towards entrapment and ever-rising consumerist expectations.

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Chapter 4

Content

Contrasts between the Free-enterprise and Socialist systems.
A much higher level of individual protection is paid-for by a lagging performance in innovativeness and social adaptations.
The danger of complacency, when there is no "existential spur".
When people are sheltered from hunger, unemployment and slum conditions, they become very dependent upon the State to solve all their problems.
Ultimately, the members of society will have to guide their Socialist Haven.
The need to withdraw, gracefully, from the scene, and hand-over the powers and responsibilities of leadership to a new team.
Constitutional Guidelines.
A look at "normal behaviour-patterns".
The "norm" does not have to be defined with mathematical precision.
The central core of a generally accepted range of normality, with a shell of variable meaning for individual applications.
Why the struggle for survival in a social environment is different from the ruthless struggle in "raw nature".
Responsibility is not possible without the freedom to make a choice.
The freedom to make mistakes, and to disagree with the authorities.
To remain "normal", means, also, to remain "healthy".
We survive by producing what we need.
A beneficial level of existential anxiety.
"Pure" free-enterprise is incompatible with a viable social structure.
Socialism, and the example of an over-protective, anxious parent.
Faults in education and cultural transmission show-up much earlier in the smaller societies.
In the tightly-knit society, individual survival is linked to the ability of the group as a whole to survive.
Why we have to develop insights.
An essential linkage between rights and obligations.

We have concentrated, so far, on the problems of consumerism, as well as on the "freedom" to drift into "skid-row", which is so typical of the affluent and formless societies of free-enterprise. Societies with a more rigid concept about acceptable social behaviour, do, in general, a better job of incorporating everyone in a useful manner into society. Even so, such Socialist societies have a tendency to form an "upper crust" with a privileged elite, and, the desire of privileged parents to draw their off-spring into the same social sphere, is such a strong and instinctive drive, that we see it happen in every social system, regardless of the ideology it is ruled by.

The tendency to absorb all the available elan vital in a career, is, of course, just as prevalent in the societies with a strong social morality, as it is in our free-enterprise societies. In a way, it is more sensible to do so in the Socialist societies, because there is a much greater degree of protection and social security for the members. Besides, these societies have the advantage, that the members are not so shamelessly lured into consumerist attitudes and practices by commercial interests and propaganda.

However, as we have seen, the temptation to fall into a trap of egocentric behaviour is just as real amongst the less commercially oriented societies, because human nature is the same, regardless, whether people have been organised into a social structure with a Free-enterprise philosophy or a Socialist doctrine. A society that promises to look after its citizens from the cradle to the grave, does not infuse its members with this characteristically cautious and suspicious attitude of the "laissez faire" or free-enterprise societies. The years of physical decline are, therefore, less dangerous and fearful in societies with a better system of social security, but, on the other hand, in a society based on a rigid social doctrine, the freedom to express opinions is subdued. This may induce an attitude of lessened interest in the affairs of the State, and, together with the absence of an "existential spur" to secure one`s interests, these trends may induce an irrealistic attitude, where people forget, so easily, that all the privileges or items of consumption have to be earned with hard and persistent work.

A society that emphasises security from the cradle to the grave, and, which does not encourage a sharp discussion or debate about government policies, tolerates, unwittingly, the emergence of a privileged and powerful Party-elite, as well as a large mass of people who are ignorant and apathetic about what is going-on. Because people are sheltered from hunger, unemployment and the miseries of trying to survive in slum conditions, they become very dependent upon the State to solve all their problems, and, yet, if the State fails, or, if the political system stagnates, the people will be incapable of providing a swift and decisive corrective input to bring the Socialist society back on the right track.

If we take this spur of existential anxiety away from people by providing a social shelter that operates, continuously, during the life-time of the members of a social entity, we are risking the development of people, who will behave like spoiled and ignorant children. Yet, if we attempt to "indoctrinate" these children of society, we find, by and large, only a dull response, as well as an audience that does not quite believe what it is being told.

There is nothing wrong with the idealism to provide the basic necessities for everyone in society, but, we have to make sure, that the members of society remain fully aware of the responsibilities they have to bear collectively. Ultimately, the members of society will have to be able to guide their Socialist haven. This can only be done by promoting a completely honest and open debate, rather than through the enforcement of a social doctrine by propaganda or indoctrination. In addition, a leadership has to remain fully accountable to the people, and, it should, therefore, be truly elected by the people as a whole, and, not only, by delegates or members who belong to, or have been "screened" by, the ruling political Party. People should also have a genuine political spectrum to choose from, and, there is a need for Constitutional Guidelines to regulate the processes of democratic elections. Unless the people can truly vote for the candidates of their choice, as well as choose from a meaningful spectrum of political opinions, there will be no mechanisms to replace, gracefully and peacefully, a leadership that has lost the confidence of its people.

Finally, as part of the overall awareness of civic responsibilities, it should be Constitutionally forbidden for leadership candidates to promise the people more than they can collectively earn. Just as it is demoralising and psychologically devastating to become entrapped into debts and enslaved to one's creditors, so is it demoralising, as well as a sure route to chaos, if a leadership succumbs to the temptation to "buy social peace", by going deeply in debt and soothe the peoples with consumerist promises. The situation is even worse, of course, if huge foreign debts have been incurred to sustain the hidden and secretive habits of a privileged elite.

This is an aside, however, and, let us return to the question, what "normal behaviour" is, especially, in view of the universal tendency to engage the available elan vital to the maximum. Normality, means, literally, according to "the norm", and, a norm is always a somewhat arbitrary choice of a range of variables, which is considered to be sufficiently frequent to be considered to "fall within the normal range".

However, it is more realistic to emphasise a central core of the normal range, when defining normality, because the concept of a central core of a normal range will evoke fewer disagreements or arguments from a majority of the people. To outline, precisely, what falls within a normal range, and, what does not, is, often, open to debate, because the boundaries between what is normal and what is abnormal, are, often, not firmly established, and, it depends, then, on criteria of selection, points of view, as well as other variables within our sphere of reality perceptions, what we call normal and what falls outside it.

Therefore, if there is no firmly established boundary-line between what is normal and what is not normal, we should not lightly and abitrarily impose such a boundary line in the mistaken belief that we can not "live" with, or discuss, a problem without establishing such boundary lines, or, in the equally mistaken belief, that we can not talk about the "norm", unless we can define this range with mathematical precision. These attitudes of searching for a mathematical precision in our concepts have been nurtured by the sucesses of the empirical and quantitative sciences, and, these successes have enforced the erroneous belief that nothing is certain or nothing "exists", unless it can be measured.

We can talk about a "norm of behaviour", if we can agree amongst ourselves, to some extent, about this central core of normality, and, we leave the boundary lines to be defined, later, as much as possible, in each particular practical example. Therefore, is it "normal" for the human being to engage or use-up the totality of his elan vital in the maintenance of a status-quo?

It seems such a universal trait to engage all our vital energies, that the tendency to do so, is definitely normal, but, we see this tendency derail into an un-viable attitude, whenever people who are engaged in a struggle for dominance and power, forget, that the struggle for survival in society is not the same as survival in a truly biological sense. Secondly, people tend to forget, especially, during periods of stability and prosperity, how easy it is for society to change, and, change into an unforeseen direction. We all forget, so easily, the basic struggle and the basic requirements of life, because we take these basic necessities so easily for granted, after having been provided by parental concern or a benevolent State with the essentials of existence. These essentials of existence shelter us from many of the realities of the struggle for survival "in raw nature".

We have a tendency to become obsessed with finding a position of power, prestige, privilege or financial security, forgetting, that the real factors keeping us alive, are the availability of food and shelter, as wel as a measure of good health, together with the freedom to excercise our faculties and our sense of responsibility. Let me repeat it again; responsibility is not possible without the freedom to make a choice; to make mistakes, or, to disagree with the authorities in society. A responsible, concerned attitude that keeps this "spur" of existential anxiety alive, is not possible without excercising the franchise of a truly free vote for our political leaderships, nor, is it possible to become and remain responsible members of a society, unless we are given the opportunity to experience the adverse, or, even, disastrous effects from our mistakes or our attitudes of neglect.

To remain "normal", also means, to remain "healthy" and normal in our attitudes towards the basic criteria of survival, and, to remain healthy and lean, means, that we have to able to experience, nearly constantly, but, not necessarily, in a life-threatening manner, that we have to survive by producing what we need. If we need food and shelter, then, let us work to get it, because if we fail to do so, other people, or other societies, are perfectly justified in objecting to providing us with hand-outs. "Let them learn, that they have to look after themselves and to provide for themselves", they will say. "If they do not want to learn, let them feel the consequences, otherwise, they are never going to learn". (We assume, here, of course, that the principles of equal opportunity have been met, before such an attitude was adopted.)

The art of achieving a beneficial level of existential anxiety lies in the skill of obtaining a happy balance between two extremes; the one extreme is the situation, where we are, in essence, deadly competitors of each other, caring little about other people, in spite of a veneer of Christian charity, and the other extreme is a complete dependence on the social environment to provide us with our existential needs.

In the attitude of "everyone looks out for his own interests", we see the extreme of ruthlessly applied free-enterprise. If someone succumbs because of his own stupidity or inability to make it, so be it. This really means, however, that no social structure can be based on the basis of an all-out competitive strife, or "pure" free-enterprise. Pure free-enterprise would lead only to a number of loosely grouped, competing social units, which are in a state of serious conflict, or, at least, serious competition with each other. This is the reason, why, in practice, the principles of free enterprise have always been supplemented by a system of lawful regulations and social security provisions, which is based, in essence, on the Christian ethic.

The other extreme is, of course, the example of the over-protective, anxious parent, who is afraid to give his children any responsibility, and, who does not want to expose his off-spring to the possible hardships of "real life". By over-protecting our children, we can not help but create somewhat spoiled, childish and ingorant people, who take for granted, completely, the existence of this protective shell. Eventually, they will not have the slightest idea, how to provide for this shelter themselves, or, what efforts have to be made to maintain this sphere of shelter and security in good order.

The faults and defects in education, or cultural transmission, show-up much earlier and faster in the small-scale social environment, such as the family, compared to a large and heterogeneous society, such as a nation. If over-anxious parents tend to spoil their children, in particular, their first one or "the baby", the child may, initially, lack the necessary "corrective" stimuli to develop its social instincts. It will fail to realise that there are limits to its gratifications, but, later, the contacts with the larger world of the school, as well as the fact, that the parents are getting older and may have other children to take care of, may lead to a "rounding-off" of the personality, and, it is rare to see serious or permanent personality defects as a result of parental anxiety and insecurity.

If the parents are wealthy and belong to a privileged upper crust, the results are much more permanent, since the child will be "molded" to fit into this privileged stratum, but, education towards this socially dubious goal, still entails a fairly large variety of "corrective" measures, and, we can not equate, therefore, the "spoiling of a child" with the grooming of an heir for a position of privilege and power in the upper layers of society.

Even, the small social groupings, such as a sports-team or a small task-force, which has been given an arduous assignment, will show-up quickly any defects in communication, a lack of cohesion, or, the lack of loyalty and effort by one of the members. In such rather specialised social groupings, (often, of a temporary nature), we see, most clearly, how the "survival" of each individual depends on the efforts of each member to contribute to the common objective. If the efforts or results are insufficient or unsatisfactory, he or she will be dropped from the team, and if such is not posible, e.g., when a small party has been ship-wrecked and is trying to survive, we see a great deal of pressure being brought upon the behaviour of those, who are starting to weaken, or, who are in danger of panicking.

Clearly, survival is linked to the ability of the group as a whole to coordinate its efforts, and, to achieve the most appropriate response under the circumstances. In the well-integrated team-work of a special task-force, (or a group that has the grim, practical task of trying to survive), we see, clearly, into what direction the human society has to develop, if, and when, the time comes, that we have become dependent upon such highly coordinated and appropriate collective responses.

The "latitude", or, the individual freedom to choose what we want to do, or not to do, becomes, then, much more restricted, and, the balance between an adequate input or effort towards the common good, on the one hand, and plain survival, on the other, is then much more clearly drawn. Gone, will be the luxury of the "spoiled-child generation", able to afford to waste its time and energy in pursuing its own egocentric interests, and, we will have a much clearer perception of these defective and short-sighted behavioural attitudes, which are still "glorified", at least, in some degenerate circles, as the epitomy of human freedom and self-expression.

Gone, then, will be the era of luxury and affluence. We will not have the luxury to be obsessed with trivialities, while a large part of the world population lives in deep distress, and, gone will be our useless and naive pre-occupation with our "rights", without giving one second of thought to the question, where these rights are coming from, or, who has to work for these rights. We will have to consider the question, whether or not the acceptance of human rights has to be linked to the acceptance of human obligations. This means, that we have to accept the responsibility to contribute to the common good of society, and, to refrain from practices and attitudes that will harm the social and natural environments.

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Chapter 5

Content

The wide-ranging concept of "society"; ranging from a few people working or living together, to the world of mankind as a whole.
Economic inter-dependence, or, the common threats of pollution.
All social units depend on a labile and fragile "cutural code".
A small social unit reacts more swiftly than a larger one.
The consequences of a gigantic inertia.
The likelyhood of a catastrophe.
The larger societies have never really reached a status of vigorous health, as yet.
The genetic code has been supplemented by a cultural code, and the cultural code has to be "fleshed-out" by a consciously designed code of Constitutional Guidelines.
A challenge in diagnosis, rather than a difficult therapy.
Recapping the principles of large-scale, social viability.
An equal distribution of benefits for all the members.
A generally satisfied "sense of justice".
Class-divisions are viable, as long as a large majority agrees about their justification.
The principles of essential equality and equal opportunity are becoming globally accepted.
Differentiating on the basis of personal merit.
We need to bestow our affection and admiration on people who obviously deserve their success.
No need for a differentiation in standards of living.
Erroneous free-enterprise concepts.
A wasteful way of "evening-out the score".
Every youngster should compete from a position of essential equality.

Perhaps, we should spend a few moments discussing the definition or the concept of "society", or social grouping, because we seem to use this word for a very large range of human groupings, from the smallest social entity, such as a family-unit, to large nations, or, even, a group of nations, existing in some sort of inter-dependent relationship. Indeed, it seems useful to apply the concept of social grouping to any loose gathering or coherence of a number of people, who rely, in one way or another, upon each other. Certainly the attitudes of cooperation are often tenuous, and, they are easily punctuated by sharp conflicts of interest, together with a return towards competitive strife and combative attitudes.

A social grouping may, indeed, range from two or three people, working or living together, to the world of mankind as a whole, in particular, because most nations, in spite of their combative attitudes and proclamations about a proud independence, live in some sort of an economic inter-dependence with each other.

When we use the word or concept of society, or social grouping, in an abstract sense, it seems often difficult, or, even, impossible to delineate, exactly, the size of the society we are thinking about, because these boundaries seem to shift rapidly, depending on the social aspects we are looking at. If we emphasise an economic inter-dependence, or the common threat of pollution and toxic waste-products, we have no difficulty to make a convincing argument for the idea, that mankind has already fused into some sort of a global society, but, if we look at the ever-varying world of conflicts and competition, rivalries and suspicions, we see, that, even, the smallest and apparently most stable and genetically "given" social organisations are easily destroyed, or, at least, temporarily disrupted by a fight.

Let us emphasise the "core", or the basic features, of a social environment, regardless of its size, and, let us leave the periphery as vague as it appears to be. Let us remind ourselves, here, about a general principle, which we can abstract from looking at a large variety of social units, be they large or small. This principle is represented by the fact, that all social units depend for their stability on a "cultural code", and, we know, that this code can easily become defective. Defects in the cultural code, or the cultural transmission of acquired behaviour-patterns, show-up much easier in small social entities compared to the larger ones.

In the small society, the deficiencies are so disruptive, that a defective cultural transmission is rarely capable of doing widespread or permament damage to the people in such a small grouping, because, quickly, "corrective measures" will be evoked from the other members who live in a similar small grouping or family-unit, close by. The members of a defective family-unit would literally not survive, if their behaviour would be too far removed from an acceptable norm, which is applied and enforced through the existence of a much larger social entity, such as an ethnic, religious or national unit.

In contrast, the large, amorphous, unstructured and heterogeneous societies of affluence and free-enterprise are so slow and ponderous in their behavioural responses, so confused and ineffectual in their reactions, that, several generations in a row can be educated defectively, resulting in a slowly increasing number of deficiencies, leading, eventually, to a social collapse on a gigantic scale. Yet, the momentum of affluence and economic inter-dependence may be so sustained, and, the threat from the outside may be so subdued, for such a long period of time, that this degenerate and essentially decaying society lingers-on for many generations, often, teetering on the brink of collapse, but, always seeming to survive a while longer. Large segments of the population in such societies manage to "survive", in spite of the fact, that they do not make any contribution to society, and, they may, even, live in a parasitic or predatory manner, feeding-off, or preying upon, the "society at large".

The inertia of such a large society is so great, that it can survive and continue to exist for many generations, in spite of the fact, that a viable cultural core or code has already disappeared. Similarly, efforts to rejuvenate such a society, or, to turn the tide of a down-hill slide, are seemingly futile and without results, because the inertia or momentum of the system seems to make its course irreversible, once it has been started into motion. Besides, there are many accidental factors within such a decaying society, which determine, together with the overall cultural features of a society, its destiny.

It may well be, however, that, if, and when, the collapse of the affluent societies is going to come, their demise will be swift, and the degenerate attitudes and cultural guidelines will be easily swept-away by a more vigorous, more appropriate mode of conduct and reality interpretation, giving the people a better grip on the problems they are confronted with. One thing we can be sure of; we will always be facing problems and challenges, some new and some old, and, we also know, that these problems and challenges will become more difficult, more complex and more tenacious, as time goes by. They will require ever more strenuous and decisive counter-measures, when we finally come to grips with the most important problems and threats we have neglected for so long.

Do I think, that our large, contemporary societies are unhealthy? You better believe it. Let us enumerate the many faulty attitudes and practices we can see, and, we will come to the conclusion, that, nearly all of us contribute, in one way or another, to the unhealthy status of our societies. Let me add, however, that I am not implying that the societies of the past were any healthier; far from it. Our societies, in particular, the larger ones, would be completely incapable of dealing with modern problems and circumstances, if they would be merely a copy of the societies of the past, and, just like any other living organism, our societies are trying to adapt, regardless, how ineffectively, to the rapidly changing circumstances, because they sense, intuitively, that their survival depends on such an attempt to adjust.

However, just as the genetic code had to give-way to a cultural code in the behaviourally flexible species', in order to ensure the capability to adapt, rapidly, to quickly changing circumstances, so is the "cultural code", or, rather, this vague and somewhat haphazard complex of culturally transmitted beliefs and guidelines, incapable of ensuring an adequate social response for the larger societies. Just as the genetic code gave-way to the cultural code, so does the subconscious and haphazardly grown cultural code have to give-way to a code that has been consciously drafted and crafted in the form of a globally acceptable and viable set of Constitutional Guidelines.

Therefore, in spite of the attempts and efforts by our social leaders to make it a place of justice, where every member can feel at home and can feel a genuine advantage of belonging to society, the overall goals of long-term survival are not being accomplished or realised to any significant extent, and, many of the more complex problems are not being responded to appropriately.

We will list a series of specific problems and developments that still await a decisive answer, but, I grant you, that these problems exist as much as a challenge in diagnosis, as they are a challenge in therapy. Most of the major problems we will discuss, and, which still require an adequate response, have yet to be agreed-upon, and, these problems do not even exist, as yet, in a clear, conceptual awareness in most people's minds. As long as we do not know, what ails us, we can not be expected to make any rational and decisive moves to eliminate the disease process. As long as we are in the dark about the true nature of the problems facing us, we can not do anything more than try to find, empirically and haphazardly, a few remedies for relief.

Let me state, once more, the principles upon which a viable, large-scale social cohesion is based; at least, as I see these mechanisms, because these principles do not seem to be widely agreed-upon, as yet. The cardinal principle of viability for any social organisation, is the fact, that the benefits of belonging to the social grouping must be distributed to all members in an essentially equal manner. At least, a large majority of the members who constitute the social organisation, must experience, consciously or subconsciously, that they are better of because of the existence of this social grouping. A second principle which is closely related to the first one, states that the members of a society should also experience a "sense of justice", by which we mean, that a great majority of the members can, and does agree with the way the social grouping is organised, and, that they can accept their place in society, as well as their share of benefits and burdens, as fair and just.

Certainly, this definition of the experience of a measure of fairness or justice does not specify the position of the members in society. If there exists a belief structure that makes a particular situation of class-divisions acceptable to the society as a whole, then, the society is viable, because a large majority of people, slaving away for their "masters", such as a privileged ruling or priestly elite, still feels that it is "just", or, that it is a divine will, or decree, which determines each individual's position in society and fate in life.

However, if these beliefs and cultural guidelines crumble, and, if people start to question, why certain people should be allowed to live a life of privilege and luxury, while others have to slave and carry a disproportionate share of the burdens, then, such a class-ridden society becomes a hot-bed for anger and frustration, which will eventually tear the society apart in a bloody revolution; unless it has shown itself flexible and adaptable enough to change, gradually and smoothly, in accordance with changing views and beliefs.

It seems safe to say, that, nearly all the major societies have adopted, now, the idea, that every member of society should have, at least, a more or less equal opportunity to find a niche, somewhere, in society. The idea, that privileged classes can be "inherited" has disappeared as a widely acceptable concept, but, in practice, the inheritance of a position of privilege, or, at least, the advantage of being born in a well-to-do and privileged family, plays a role in nearly every society. However, as we have argued before, the more openly and intelligently a society applies the principles of equal opportunity for each and every child born into society, the less significant and influential the help or advantage is going to be for those, born from parents who have done well.

We have also discussed the fact, that a certain level of differentiation between people is always going to take place, regardless of the philosophy or cultural guidelines of the social environment. Even, if the society adheres strictly to the principles of equal opportunity and a more or less equal standard of living, we see, that a few individuals have the talent and the ambition to become leaders in one or other field of endeavour, while the average majority settles, somewhere, comfortably, into a niche of near anonymity. At the same time, a few people have the misfortune to never find their niche and they remain drifters, often ending-up as criminals and a liability to society.

No society will argue with these differentiations on the basis of personal merit, and, no person will begrudge the fame, the approval and the success that eventually comes to those, who are determined, talented and lucky enough to "make it". As a matter of fact, we , ordinary people, love to see some people make it, because we admire success, an exceptional achievement, or a beneficial leadership.

While we readily bestow our affection and admiration on people who deserve their success and privileges, we do not want them to become secretive, elusive or elitist in their attitudes, and, we frown upon any attempt to use the power of success for egocentric purposes. Therefore, no-one should be surprised to see a differentiation in status or prestige between people, but, there is no reason at all, why this differentiation in status or prestige should be translated into a differentiation in living standards. If someone is admired for a particuar skill or a job well-done, why should I, the average individual, agree, that, such an indivdual has now much more money, can afford a lot more luxuries, or, have access to all sorts of privileges which are not available to us, average people?

Yet, many people, in particular in the free-enterprise societies, seem to take it for granted, that a successful individual will translate his or her success into extra powers and privileges, creating an elitist class of money and wealth, which can be inherited by their off-spring. Those born to wealthy parents have, then, a life-long, inherited and undeserved advantage over those, who come from poorer families.

Only, if the rich and undeserving heirs to fortune and advantage squander their head-start of wealth and privileges in a life of degenerate debaucherie, will they "equalise themselves", and, these undeserving heirs often sink below the average standard, as they lack the experience to fend for themselves and earn a decent living in the working man's world.

But, what a wasteful way to "even the score"! Does it not make much more sense to make sure, that the children of successful parents are not able to keep relying on this advantage, and, would it not be much more sensible, and just, if these youngsters would be required, from an early age, to compete at the same level with those, who come from less privileged or prominent families?

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Chapter 6

Content

The virtues of social transparence.
The obligations of leadership are in full view.
We have to be able to "correct" a defective leadership.
The complexities of an enlarging social unit, and the growth of cultural manifestations.
The sphere of individual reality perceptions includes only a small fragment of the larger social environment.
Mechanisms to foster large-scale social cohesion.
The bonds of communal belligerence.
A rising awareness about the dangers of synchronised emotions.
The period of unbridled territorial expansion is over.
Cultural and religious justifications for the stratification of a society are disappearing.
Dictatorships of the right, and the left, are becoming increasingly untenable.
Lingering fallacies and hypocrisies in international attitudes and communications.
Fundamental problems with politically diverse, democratically governed societies.
Making a leadership accountable to the people places a remarkable burden of responsibility on collective insights.
An attitude of collective responsibility depends on sophisticated insights.
A fundamental change in the mechanisms of aggressive expansionism and territorial defense.
The long and complex road of social integration.
The hierarchical order in the small, natural social unit.
The emergence of a multi-individual leadership structure.
The conscious contract of essential equality.
Satisfying the sense of justice.
The draw-backs of an inherited leadership position.
The problems of leadership succession in the larger societies can only be solved through free and fair elections by an informed and responsible electorate.
The need for a universal franchise to vote for the candidate of our choice.

Let us go back to the principles that determine the viability of a social organisation. As long as the organisation is small, it remains more or less transparent. The members know each other well, and the leader knows all the members personally. We have discussed the fact, that nature has prepared us reasonably well for an existence in such a small, natural social grouping. Not only, do we know each other's behaviour and personalities, but, we are reminded, constantly, by a number of practical experiences, that any sort of behaviour threatening to break-up this social cohesion, is not going to be tolerated.

Similarly, the obligations of the leadership are constantly in full view. The leaders are called-upon, again and again, to defend their territory and social grouping against attack and other dangers, and, they are required, time and again, to lead the hunt and provide for shelter. If the leader of a small group becomes a tyrant and shirks, egocentrically, his responsibilities, he will be quickly challenged and replaced, because such a defective behaviour is highly dangerous for the group as a whole, and, it will intuitively be rejected, because the group is likely to perish, if it fails to "correct" a defective leadership.

However, the situation becomes much more complex, if the social grouping grows larger. The members and their leaders do not know each other, anymore, personally. The mechanisms of hierarchical positioning become inadequate to settle disputes. The leadership tasks become much more complex, requiring the growth of a multi-individual leadership structure, together with its bureaucratic institutions and its executive and information gathering channels. In short, all the manifestations of the "cultural growth" of a society, such as an increase in the capabilities of its leadership, of language and thought, conceptual clarity, as well as the explicit formulations of guidelines, or "laws", the art of recording speech and facts; all these "inventions" of a cultural nature were stimulated by the need to improve the communications between the members of a larger social unit.

While these cultural innovations have been very successful as a basis for enlarging the size of the socially integrated unit, the conditions under which the members of the larger societies, or "civilisations", had to live, became more stressful and confusing. The "transparence", which was such an obvious if sub-conscious feature of the small society, disappeared; the "sphere of knowledge and reality perceptions" for each member of society, including the leadership, began to encompass only a fraction of the entire pool of knowledge of the society, and, this meant, that the social organisation then extended far beyond the horizon of knowledge and awareness of the individual, and, often, these social complexities came to lie beyond the boundaries of the concerns and loyalties of the members of such a large social entity. These mechanisms took place, in spite of the fact, that the leadership, as well as the cultural guidelines of society, were always trying to ensure, that the loyalties of the members were extended to the society as a whole.

Religious symbols and rituals, the common bonds of a shared leadership and its institutions, the common bonds of beliefs and language, as well as common enemies; these were all factors, designed, by accident or intentionally, to create a unity of feelings, loyalty and identification amongst a large group of people, in spite of the fact, that the group had become so large, that the members could not know each other anymore personally.

What is the result of all these developments of social enlargement and an increased complexity? We see, that the leadership accumulates a privileged, ruling class around itself, and, the burdens of providing for the State and its leadership, the divine institutions and its priestly servants, fall, primarily, on the "average worker", later supplemented by slaves who were captured from neighouring societies after they had been conquered or subdued. Acts of warfare have always been common, and, we all know, how an effective social cohesion can be maintained, or, even, improved, if the people can be swept-up in an emotion of synchronised belligerence and victorious expectations, where they start to look forward to the spoils and territorial gains of an act of aggression or predation against their common enemy.

As one of the more fortunate and beneficial developments of our modern times, with its world-wide network of communications and a vastly enlarged awareness of each other's existential needs, problems and aspirations, we see, that a simplistic "war-hysteria", or, an effort to divert the people's attention away from internal problems and towards an outside "enemy", is rapidly losing favour, because there is now a more effective public outcry against such acts of aggression, or tactics of diversion. This does not prevent dominant societies from defending what they call "their legitimate interests", whenever weaker societies in their neighbourhood are in danger of falling into the "wrong hands"; of becoming a center of support for a regime that is in competition with, or hostile towards, the dominant force.

Just as we, in our somewhat civilised societies, do not steal anymore from our neighbours, or walk-in and grab whatever we want, so is it becoming less acceptable, and more costly in terms of adverse consequences, if a society tries to solve its problems of internal tensions or material needs by conquering a weaker neighbour. I do not want to suggest, that the period of territorial expansion is over. There is always the temptation to grab a slice of territory, in particular, if a society thinks it can get-away with it. Nevertheless, the network of global communications and a higher level of public awareness provides for, at least, some restraints, such as a public condemnation, or, even economic sanctions, whenever such expansionist moves are perpetrated.

Similarly, we see, by and large, that the cultural and religious justifications for maintaining a stratified society are rapidly disappearing. Certainly, we still see fanatic, fundamentalist religious beliefs being used as a moral and political rallying-point for a society in great turmoil, but, we do not see a wealthy, opulent, priestly class, living a life of ostentatious luxury at the expense of a subdued and awed, hard-working peasantry, but, the polarising, free-enterprise societies are beginning to show, once again, the emergence of a wealthy, opulent elite.

We have seen the emergence of a variety of social dogmas, which are used as the foundation for an egalitarian society, but, as we have discussed before, if these ideologies are imposed upon the whole of society by a single political Party, we see, eventually, a rise in the level of abuse and the emergence of a secretive, exclusive, Party-elite. However, many societies are still not organised along any ideological lines, and, they are merely under the heel of a powerful ruling elite, which has the masses subdued by force and ignorance.

These right-wing dictatorships, where the ruling elite has become completely dependent upon a maintenance of the status-quo in order to hold-on to their wealth and the ability to finance the military, are invariably put under increasing revolutionary pressures, and, we see, now, in several parts of the world, how these ruling, military-economic elites are beleaguered by a lenghty guerilla warfare, which they will, eventually, lose.

Unfortunately, the victory of a guerilla force leads, often, to the replacement of one dictatorship with another, and, in the mean time, the people, the ordinary workers have to supply the food and the goods for the warring factions. The ordinary people always suffer the most from a chronic warfare between the ruling elite and a liberation army of guerilla fighters. The ordinary working people are exposed to oppression and torture, death and destruction from both sides. These violations of human rights are perpetrated by either side, as they are caught-up in the events of warfare and the emotions of revenge. Unfortunately, world public opinion seems to favour, at the present time, an attitude of "non-interference", which leads to prolonged periods, where the population of a war-torn country is exposed to atrocities and severe hardships that boggle the mind and are unpleasant to think about. Therefore, these problems and facts tend to be ignored, especially, by anyone, who is not directly involved.

I hope to see the day, that the United Nations have the courage, and the power, to interfere in those societies, which are torn by civil war, and, I hope to see the international community to have the will-power, as well as the military power, to impose a system of fair and democratic elections, leading to a fair and representative system of government. However, one of the reasons, why the democratic countries are unwilling, or unable, to concern themselves to the point of direct involvement with such chronic civil wars, is due to the fact, that, most societies have serious social problems of their own, and, they often profit substantially from an economic exploitation of an under-developed country. Besides, those nations, which consider themselves to be the epitomy of democratic government, can never agree amongst themselves, what should be done with countries that are torn by civil strife. Most nations tend, therefore, to support a ruling elite, as long as it is firmly in control, and, as long as it is "friendly" towards neo-colonial masters.

It seems so simple; give everyone in society an equal right to the same opportunities, and, give everyone also an equal vote for the leadership candidate of their choice. Why does it, so often, go wrong, and, why are societies that are experimenting with a democratic form of government, so often, tempted, or, even, forced to abandon these democratic experiments and replace them, once again, with a military or single-Party dictatorship? Indeed, let us discuss the fundamental problems associated with democratically ruled social environments.

The idea of a truly democratic choice of the leadership is, indeed, very attractive. For the larger societies, it seems to be the only way to avoid the imposition of a dictatorship, and, to ensure a smooth transition of power from one leadership to the next. It seems such an unassailable idea to make the leadership of a large society accountable to the people. This can be done by giving each member of society a voice, or a vote, in determining the make-up of this leadership. The candidate, who gets a majority of the votes, assumes, then, the leadership for a fixed period of time, until he has to step-down and submit himself, once more, to the choice of the people. If the people are not satisfied with his performance as the leader of a government, they can vote-in someone else, or, they can vote for another political Party, whose leader, then, becomes the next national political leader. The outgoing leadership can then step-down gracefully, without loss of prestige.

Certainly, this mechanism works well. It works in theory, and, it works remarkably well in practice. It works in most instances, where a tradition of democratic rule, a comprehensive level of understanding and education, as well as a measure of inherent stability, contribute to an atmosphere of trust and resignation to the results of the ballot box. Everyone has to accept the principle, that the majority choice prevails, but, the people also understand, at least, to some extent, what kind of attitudes and safeguards are necessary to make the democratic system work. People have to be willing to settle their differences by an honest voting procedure or a judicial judgement of the fairness of an election, in stead of a violent confrontation, where the outcome of a dispute is decided by force.

However, it is useful to remind ourselves, that such a form of elected leadership, together with the democratic method of electing this leadership, are a significant departure from the "natural way". Nature, or, rather, natural slection, has prepared a different way for leaders to succeed each other in a small, hierarchically oriented social grouping. Because we have disussed these mechanisms of hierarchical positioning before, we will not repeat them, here. Let us just recapitulate the high-lights of these mechanisms by reminding ourselves, how territorial instincts gave-way, slowly, in favour of a grudging tolerance of each other at close quarters. Rather than driving-off those we can over-power, and, rather than fleeing from those who have power over us, the hierarcical stratification substitutes an attitude of dominance over those we can dominate, as well as an attitude of submission to those who can dominate us. Without this fundamental change or adjustment in the behavioural mechanisms of aggressiveness and territorial defense, socialisation and cooperation between the members of a species, would not have been possible.

As a result of this remarable evolutionary development in the behaviour of the flexible species', which started to explore the possibilities of social integration, a hierarchical order or ordening took place. The ability to dominate the other members of a small grouping also led to the instinctive assumption of a leadership role, with the responsibilities of defending the territory against strangers and intruders; often, with the help of other strong and dominant members, and, at the same time, we see, that leaders would instinctively break-up serious infighting amongst their sub-ordinates. Perhaps, this happened, because the leader or the dominant members felt, instinctively, that such a fight would weaken the group and diminish the stature of the social unit, as well as the security of the territory over which they had assumed leadership.

We see, therefore, that, in a small, natural, social grouping, which natural selection had favoured and developed, and, which became part of our biologically inherited behaviour-patterns, the leader is not "chosen" as a deliberate act of choice by the members, but the members orden themselves automatically, by limited test-fights and challenges to a position of dominance, into a hierarchical order. Those individuals, who wind-up near the top of the hierarchical ladder, are the leaders and their capabilities are immediately and constantly tested and "utilised", in a sub-conscious way, of course, to promote the security of the entire group.

We have also discussed the fact, that the very large groupings run into difficulties, because the leadership requirements and tasks are so complex, that they require a multi-individual structure, where certain aspects of leadership function are delegated to specialised "sub-leaders". Also, the hierarchical order becomes unmanageable in the larger society because of the fact, that there are a large number of ordinary members with insignificant hierarchical differences between them, and, we have discussed, extensively, the remarkable cultural innovations carried-out by thinking, conceptually communicating individuals, when the cumbersome process of hierarchical ordening was replaced, at least, for the membership, with a "social contract" of essential equality.

Man is, indeed, capable to forego the test-fights of a hierarchical order in favour of a strictly adhered-to and scrupulously honest contract of equal status. We know, that the choice and the succession of a leadership has always been an extremely difficult problem for every major society, in spite of the many attempts to bring a certain order and "justice" to the larger societies with the help of the principles that flowed from the idea of a social contract of essential equality. If there are no definite rules for leadership succession, a savage and completely uninhibited scramble for power occurs at the top, and, every student of history is well aware of the endless litany of murders, executions, imprisonments and other acts of cruel behaviour between aspiring leaders, which form an integral part of such a power-struggle.

One of the earliest attempts to regulate the succession of power and leadership was carried-out by bringing it under a sacred rule of law, which would give the right of leadership to an inherited line of successors. We see, then, the emergence of a large number of royal families and priestly classes, to ensure, at least, a measure of stability and order during the transition of power. However, an inherited line of leadership is extremely "inefficient", because it is logical, that, rarely, true leaders will emerge this way.

Larger societies have never been able to solve this dilemma satisfactorily by adopting an inherited form of leadership succession, because any form of regulation, meant, a severe restriction in the number and quality of the candidates available, while a "free for all" power-struggle led, not only, to unimaginable cruelty and strife, but, often, weakened the society disastrously, and, it was, therefore, an unsatisfactory method to conduct the business of transferring political and military power.

Indeed, it became apparent, that the only solution was the idea of a conscious and free choice by the membership, and, we see during a large part of human history, an experiment going-on with the democratisation of the mechanisms of leadership succession, long before the most recent and historically well documented development of a Parliamentary Democracy. However, who was going to get the vote? Should the poor and the rich have an equal say? What about the many forms of abuse that were always a possibility? Often, it was difficult to decide, who was a citizen, entitled to a vote. Obviously, the slave was only a tool to do work, and he was, therefore, excluded from the franchise to vote for the leadership of society.

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Chapter 7

Content

The democratisation of political leadership.
Industrialisation has brought-about rapid social changes.
Successful efforts to re-distribute the material benefits of an expanding economy.
A social "Contra-Reformation" to the challenge of Communism.
When a majority of people became "consumers".
The problems of the modern, Capitalist democracies are related to an unbridled "freedom of choice" in the selection of an economic enterprise.
Political candidates, who are trying to "buy", or promise, their way to power.
Many inter-dependent factors determine the evolution and destiny of the modern, affluent, Capitalist, free-enterprise democracies.
An unhealthy dependence upon continuing economic expansion.
A "dead-end" situation.
Being introvert and insensitive to the needs of others.
The affluent consumer is like a spoiled child.
A confusing stream of commercial propaganda.
The solution of a simple, frugal way of life.
At the present time, it is impossible for everyone to "opt-out".
A life-style of frugal self-reliance means, "hard work".
The fraud of inflation or monetary devaluation.
The opportunity for political leaders to set a good example.
The need for trust.
People must have a clear idea what society is all about.
Dispelling the myth, that a government has an unlimited supply of money.
When the awareness has been lost that there has to be a balance between input and output.
Contradictions to the democratic principle.

The experiment with the democratisation of the leadership is, in essence, as old as the larger societies of mankind. This becomes clear, if we look beyond the most recent history of the development of a Parliamentary Democracy, and the introduction of universal suffrage after the abolition of slavery. One of the most recent refinements of the democratic experiment is the emancipation of the woman. Ironically, just as the experiment of democracy really seemed to succeed, and, just as we saw the historically quite unusual phenomenon that a nation's prosperity and good fortunes would, indeed, benefit the masses, and, not only, a powerful and privileged elite, we see a number of difficulties arise, which are a direct result of the fact, that, for the first time in history, a majority of people are, indeed, the beneficiary of social and economic prosperity.

We have seen, how quickly the life-style of ordinary citizens changed, when the social environment changed-over into an industrialised economy. During the past few centuries, we have seen, how people flocked to the cities and became the captives of commercial enterprises as a result of their dependence on a regular income. We know about the struggle of the working people to regain a balance of power with the formation of labour-unions, and the introduction of labour legislation.

These developments were a clear indication, that people recognised the need to ensure an equal distribution of the wealth created by industrial development. Failure to create such regulatory mechanisms resulted, once again, in a powerful and immensely wealthy elite, while the working masses remained poor and enslaved to their employers. To the credit of the affluent nations, we should acknowledge, that, many efforts to re-distribute the benefits of society have been quite successful, and this is the reason, why the spread of Communism with its dogma of a revolutionary over-throw of the wealthy elite, remained, by and large, limited to those societies, which lagged behind in the drive for social reforms, and, which still found themselves with feudal class-divisions and great contrasts between the rich and the poor. Other countries had begun a process of social change and an equalisation of wealth under the spur of a rising social conscience.

However, what are the pitfalls of a democratic society, where good fortune and well thought-out legislation provided the masses, indeed, with the main benefits of industrial development and economic expansion? The people became "consumers", and, this fueled a continuation of this remarkably swift rate of economic expansion, which was made possible by the advent of widespread mechanisation. The problems of the modern, Capitalist democracies, are essentially, a result of the philosophy of a "freedom of choice" in the selection of an economic enterprise. The other major pitfall of the affluent democracy is, ironically, a result of this lofty institution; the democratic election of its leadership. The system of popularly elected leaderships makes it unavoidable, that leadership candidates would be trying to "buy" their way into power by making all sorts of promises, and, by telling the people, what they wanted to hear. Leaders became elected, not for their skills and foresight to lead a complex society, but, according to the attractiveness of their promises.

This is a disastrous side-effect of an irresponsible use of the democratic vote, in particular, if the society requires "strong medicine" to correct the many ills and short-comings it has contracted over the years. Now, leadership candidates tend to engage in a superficial popularity contest, and, if some leadership candidates can promise a painless way to get out of difficulties, then, it is very likely, that they will win-out over someone, who is advocating unpopular, but necessary austerity measures. These logical psychological mechanisms were ultimately responsible for the fact, that political leaderships adopted ever more flagrant practices of debt-financing.

Rising expectations, fueled by rising expenses and inflationary pressures on the prevailing currencies, are the major factors in our modern societies leading to uncertainties, anxieties, frustration and resentment, and, they are the primary cause for a tendency to fall into a trap of voluntary financial slavery; by going deeply into debt. Chronic anxieties, frustration and resentment have a tendency to contract the sphere of concern. People become increasingly egocentric, and, they openly support candidates who promise them the most. etc. The circle is closed and forms a continuous spiral of pressures upon elected politicians to fulfill their promises, and, to "pay-off" those, who helped them to become elected. As a result, the national debt is increased, as more money is spent to keep the people happy; more jobs have to be created, more has to be spent on those who are without work, etc., etc.

As a result, modern societies and their leaderships become increasingly dependent upon a continuation, or, even, an acceleration of the processes of economic expansion, but, we all know, how much we are in a "dead-end" situation, here. There is no room for continued economic expansion. We are depleting our resources, and we are polluting our environment, and, the poorer nations are rightly resisting a reckless squandering of their natural resources, as the developed nations practice their exploitative policies of financial enslavement and neo-colonialism.

In short; the dependence upon affluence by the people, as well as their political leaders, has made the modern consumer-oriented societies extremely introvert, and, as a result, they have become insensitive to the needs of others, including the great disparities that still exist everywhere. A chronic atmosphere of resentment, anger and frustration leads, inevitably, to blatantly egocentric and militant attitudes, preventing the election of any leader who dares to suggest, that we should abandon our consumerist obsessions and go back to the basics of a healthy life-style.

To a large extent, the leaderships of affluent nations are paralysed by the unhealthy consequences of a consumerist atmosphere, and, they can only channel some of this egocentric, anxious and militant anger into an attitude of "defensive belligerence", where nations proclaim, loudly, their strategic, military and economic interests in various parts of the world.

The affluent consumer is like a spoiled child. In some countries, it is generations ago, that the people experienced true hardships, like hunger, or occupation by a foreign power, and, the most luxurious standard of living is considered "the norm"; to be expanded continuously. Besides, the people become more ignorant and confused by the steady stream of commercial propaganda, as well as the sharp contradictions within their societies. Credibility disappears. Anxiety and uncertainty flourish, leading to ever more defensive, belligerent and short-sighted attitudes.

We have described the problems of affluent consumerism before, and, we will not repeat a detailed litany of all the ills we can see. Let us consider the question, whether or not it is possible in such a society with rising tensions, uncertainties, doubts and frustrations, to reverse the tendency towards a narrow egocentric attitude, and improve, thereby, the quality of the political leadership and the philosophy of political conduct. The best possible turn-around would come, if a sufficient number of people would recognise the trap of affluence and the futility of trying to cover the continuously increasing costs of affluence with ever rising demands for higher wages.

If a sufficient number of people would "step out" from this tread-mill and seek a simple, frugal life-style, where they would supply most of their needs with their own hands, the consumer demands would be drastically reduced; people would avoid getting deeply into debt, and, they would have the option, and the freedom, to demand from their political leaders a return to fiscal responsibility, as well as a curb on the influence and power of the large corporations. In short, it is possible to escape from these constant pressures which a consumerist society is placing upon its members, because we can always see a small minority doing just that.

However, it would, probably, be impossible for everyone to opt-out from society, because there would be insufficient opportunities for people to seek shelter in rural surroundings, with a life-style of partial self-sufficiency. A large majority of the people would not have the initiative, nor the opportunity, to do so, and the change towards a more frugal life-style will have to be made, wherever people are living. This means, a concerted effort to reduce property taxes, to by-pass local merchants with expensive goods and services, and, to assume a much greater initiative to look after everything around the house, including the family-car. However, I doubt, whether the majority of people have the will, and the insight, to embark on a life-style of frugal self-reliance, because the lures and pressures to consume are strong, indeed.

Even, if people would just avoid going deeply into debt, we would already see a significant lessening of the pressures and frustrations many people have to work under. Here, of course, wise and prudent political leaders could do a lot by encouraging savings and the avoidance of debts, but, before it would make sense, again, for the average individual to save his monies, political leaders have to eradicate the phenomenon of inflation, and, they would have to abandon the conviction, that a renewed stimulation of the economy will solve all social ills.

The senseless erosion of the buying power of money is a fraud, and, while it is true that prices and wages can, probably, not be controled indefinitely, the continuous spiral of rising prices and the anxious efforts to compensate for this by a rise in wages, has to stop. Here, political leaders can set a perfect example by paying-off the national debt, and, by avoiding to go in debt again, but, then, their electorate must make such a bold, and, initially, quite painful fiscal policy, not only, possible, but, they must actually demand such a course of action. There seems to be little chance for this to happen, but, then, who knows what a fashionable idea whose time has come, can do.

Perhaps, our modern societies will be gripped, one day, by the fashion of austerity and frugality, and, we may see one of the most dramatic reversals of attitudes in history. Before such a dramatic change in attitude is possible, however, we must be able to trust each other much better then we do at the present time. We must be able to trust, that everyone is participating in a program of voluntary restraints, and, that the rich and powerful are forced to participate in a re-distribution of wealth, because it is naive to hope, that a sustained attitude of frugality and saving is possible, merely on the strength of a beautiful idea.

Consumerism, together with its many consequences, is only one of the reasons, why democratic societies are becoming ungovernable, as politicians find it increasingly difficult to chart a sensible course for society, and are thwarted in their efforts to apply some common-sense measures. People must have a clear idea what society is all about, and, people must be able to see, how each one of us has to make a contribution to society, in one way or another, according to the particular skills we have. In addition, we have to educate our youngsters, thoroughly, in order to dispel the common myth that the government has an unlimited supply of money, or, that the company one works for, would not miss a small item, here or there, or, that it would not be hurt, if we give it less in time and effort than we have agreed-to, and are being paid-for.

Indeed, we need to restore a sense of balance. We need to restore the concept, as well as the experience, that all benefits, rights and privileges, which we, as individuals, enjoy in our society, depend on the fact, that, somewhere, someone has worked for them. There is a dangerous absence of awareness of this basic equation between social input and output, and, the spoiled, demanding, egocentric and undisciplined members of the affluent societies are still increasing the social chaos by their thoughtless attitudes and erroneous practices.

Here, we are, proud of our democratic societies, and institutions; at least, those, who are educated and are in a somewhat prominent social position, will often display such a civic pride. We have given each other a scrupulously equal franchise to vote, and, then, we turn around, and promote and support special-interest groupings, lobbies, powerful conglomerates of businesses or professional people, as well as powerful labour-unions, with the right to strike at the heart of society. This is completely contradictory to the democratic principle. If we agree upon the social contract of democratic equality, then, we should make sure, that society and its leaders are not subjected to non-democratic pressures from special-interest groupings, regardless of the power or nature of these egocentrically oriented groupings.

Sure, long ago, in the historic past, the right to form trade-unions, as well as the right to strike against a powerful company, were necessary tools to equalise a lop-sided power-struggle between a large industry and its workers, but, the right to strike by a union of people, employed by a democratically elected government, is utter nonsense. We all have the same power and the same influence to elect the government of our society, and, we should not allow this government, its leadership, its institutions, or the public at large, to be held to ransom by the fact, that certain workers have been given the privilege to work in important public institutions.

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Chapter 8

Content

How should a large, democratic society be organised?
A comparison with the efficient behaviour-patterns of a single, multi-cellular organism.
A leadership has to have the well-being of the entire society in mind.
Preventing, at all costs, the mechanisms of polarisation.
The contract of essential equality.
The need to acquire an accurate, comprehensive picture of all relevant happenings taking place in society.
The element of social transparence.
A radical abolition of the right to secrecy of action, planning, financial income and social contacts.
A shell of privacy is needed to relax and reflect.
Learning to recognise and abolish hypocrisies.
Too many people can drift through life, without making any contribution to their social environment.
Putting a stagnating and paralysed country "back on its feet".
Why we have to abolish all pressure-groups.
Preserving, scrupulously, the social contract of essential equality with carefully crafted Constitutional Guidelines.
If we want to scrutinise others, we should also allow ourselves to be scrutinised.
Various "quid pro quo's".
A complex balance of forces.
A penetrating openness.
Everything will be judged on the quality of fairness.
Integrating our adolescents into society, as soon as possible.
Becoming responsible, if somewhat tired, citizens.
We will have to find a Constitutional solution for the short-comings of our genetic endowment.
An accomplishment that is needed for the sake of survival.
Extending the principles of the social contract to international relations.
Thinking, constantly, in terms of globally shared interests.

We could describe many more instances of inconsistent thought and consumerist behaviour with a detrimental, even, paralysing effect upon a large, modern, democratic society. However, let us discuss, briefly, how such a large, democratic society should be organised; how it should function; in what way it has to change to become more viable, and, what sort of safeguards we have to enshrine in the Constitution, in order to make these large, democratic societies, viable and just organisations. Indeed, how should a society behave, in order to compare favourably with the efficient behaviour-patterns of a single, multi-cellular organism? In other words; how does a society become and remain lean and fit, flexible and strong, as it tries to cope with ever changing circumstances and demands?

It seems almost an essential impossibility, or contradiction, to expect a large, democratic society to behave with the speed, agility and appropriateness that characterise the behaviour of a lean and fit organism, and, we may well ask ourselves, how it will be possible to translate the divergent interests and opinions of the members of society into a single, coherent behavioural response?

This question points-out, first of all, that the leadership should be elected by a popular vote, but, it should then function, primarily, with the objective and goals of the entire society in mind. How can we prevent a paralysing strife and Parliamentary dead-lock, when the vote of the electorate is split evenly over opposing Parties? The answer is, simply, that we can not prevent a polarised and bickering Parliament and political leadership, once the peoples have become polarised and belligerent. How do we prevent a process of polarisation in society? Primarily, by the construction and the enforcement of an extensive code of guidelines; a Constitution, which ensures, that each and every member has an equal opportunity, at least, as a child or adolescent, to unfold talents and to find a suitable place in society. Unless a society keeps a constant and vigilant watch over this essential social contract, we should not be surprised to see, that the democratic society is stifled and smothered by rising tensions and frustrations, as well as by the rapid accumulation of unjust situations, which are neglected and, often, not even recognised.

In order to enforce the terms of the democratic contract, which includes, not only, equal opportunities, but, also, equal voting rights, civil rights and obligations, society and its leadership must have the capability to acquire, quickly and comprehensively, a picture of all relevant happenings and developments taking place within the social environment. This requires a constant effort to keep the society transparent, and, to create, and maintain, efficient and competent channels for the execution of leadership decisions and the monitoring of their effects.

Of course, in the definition of social justice, we assume, not only, open and cooperative attitudes from all the members of society, but, we imply scrupulously honest leadership institutions and bureaucratic functions. On various occasions, we have outlined, in detail, how we can keep a government and its bureaucracy open, honest and efficient, and, essentially the same tools will keep the relationships between the members of society, open and honest.

These tools are, first of all, an abolition of the right to secrecy of action and planning, as well as income and social contacts. As we discussed before, this radical abolition of secrecy does not mean, that we have to abolish a shell of privacy, which every individual needs in order to relax and be him- or herself. However, there is no reason, why we should not have access to all information about people's income and assets, about their work, as well as the relationships they form with other people, because, only, then, will it be possible to judge, whether or not someone is adhering to the social contract; whether or not an individual is starting to build-up a hidden empire of special privileges and luxuries, or, a web of influence and power. As we all know, we can only give each other our trust, if we see, that everyone is scrupulously adhering to the conditions of the social contract, which we all profess, so willingly, to adhere to.

Yet, at the same time, we engage still in a game of hypocrisy. We embrace the democratic principles as our "Social Faith", but, we behave as a group of fiercely competitve individuals, who do not shun any method to gain an advantage. Not only, do we want to gain an advantage, but, we want to keep this advantage indefinitely, and, we want to transmit a shell of protection and priveleges to our off-spring. We still think, that a democratic society, means, in essence, the freedom to grab power and wealth whenever we can, as well as the right to hold-on to such privileges in perpetuity. Those, who fail to make it for one reason or another are still expected to accept the position they find themselves in. "After all, they still have the right to vote, and, if there are enough of them, they will undoubtedly manage to elect a politician, who gives them another government hand-out".

Our societies are still riddled with injustices, secretive practices, unfair privileges, and unequal opportunities, and, they also lack an efficient enforcement of the principles of equal contribution. Too many people can drift through life within their society without really making any contribution at all, squandering their time and talents, living as parasites upon the tax-payers monies, contributed, reluctantly, by those, who have been trapped in the consumerist tread-mill.

We have discussed, before, that it may seem impossible to reform a large society to the point, that the people are open, trustful and confident with each other; that they are respectful and honest, with a competent leadership and bureaucracy, fully aware of the need to make a significant contribution to their social environment in order to bestow on each other the privileges, as well as the duties, which arise from the democratic contract. Yet, it can be done, and, it will have to be done, because, as we have discussed, so many times, a society that fails to prevent a drift towards serious polarisation and confrontation, winds-up being paralysed, chaotic and completely ineffectual. Eventually, the democratic process will have to be suspended, at least, temporarily, in order to put the country "back on its feet".

Just as an individual organism will surely die, if it becomes paralysed and indecisive from a lack of direction, energy or coherence to make an appropriate move, so will a society that has stagnated as a result of internal strife, collapse into utter chaos, with a complete break-down in law and order, unless someone, usually a military dictator, assumes power and rules society with an iron hand. A dictatorial form of leadership is then necessary, at least, for a while, in order to overcome the strife and bickering of opposing factions, and, the rights and liberties of civil freedoms have to be suspended, temporarily, until a condition emerges that may lend itself for another experiment with democratic rule.

The point is this; we can not expect a democratic experiment to last for any length of time, unless the political process, the conditions of trust and equality, of justice and an equitable distribution of privileges and burdens, is scrupulously maintained by a set of Constitutional rules, which the society as a whole has thoroughly debated and helped to shape, before it was voted into law. If a society has opted for the democratic social contract, let us, then, also, design a Constitution, able to ensure that the principles of this social contract are scrupulously adhered-to. If each member of society is supposed to have an equal say in the political process, let us then design Constitutional guidelines prohibiting the formation of unions, lobbies or other special-interest groups, whenever they pervert the democratic principle by exerting a political pressure upon the leadership, over and beyond the influence granted to them by the social democratic contract.

If the social contract gives each individual an equal opportunity, let us make sure, then, that, indeed, such an equality in opportunity exists, and, let us prevent the development of an elite with special privileges and powers, which is, once again, a negation of the principle of equality. If we believe, that people should obtain their assets in a legal and moral way, let us then scrutinise each other's incomes and assets to make sure, that we can justify, with pride and honour, the fruits of our labour. If we believe, that we should promote attitudes of trust and openness, let us make sure, that we have access to all information, including the deliberations and plans of our leaders, but, at the same time, let us all cooperate and provide detailed information to our leadership about ourselves, our associations, and our status and role in society.

If we want to scrutinise others, we should also be willing to be scrutinised. If we believe, that we all should make a fair contribution to society, let us, then, make sure, that everyone participates, and, that no-one gets an opportunity to be lazy or uninvolved in the affairs of society. If we believe in the privilege of freedom and differentiation, and, if we believe in the ability to pursue different careers and different interests, let us, then, also make sure, that these freedoms do not encroach upon the rights of others. If we believe to have the right to fair and objective information, let us make sure, that our mass-media are not monopolised by commercial interests, trying to brain-wash us into buying one product or another.

If we believe to have the right to buy a product that is fairly presented and delivers what it promises, let us, then, also accept the obligation to provide a workmanship to the company or the employer we work for, which is honest and which delivers the quality we are being paid-for.

We have to realise, that we have to really earn, by serious, honest and efficient workmanship, the monies we receive from our job. If we slack-off or do not pull our weight, someone else will have to work harder, or the products will suffer in quality and quantity. In our confused and chaotic societies, large segments of the work-force, as well as the world of commercial enterprises, can engage in all sorts of exploitative and unscrupulous practices, and, no-one says much about it, but, in the society of the future, relationships will be so transparent, that each individual's work is constantly being monitored, and, any deficiency or short-coming will immediately be noticed.

Let us not be afraid for such a penetrating transparence, nor, should we fear being unmercifully exploited, if each moment of our working day can be monitored and scrutinised, because under the rules of fair and equitable living and working conditions, we will also scrutinise and regulate, very carefully, to what extent a human being can be required to maintain a certain output. Everything will be judged on fairness. The contribution of the worker to his job, as well as the techniques of the employer to obtain a certain level of productivity from his workers.

If we believe, that everyone should make an appropriate and reasonable contribution to society, depending upon skills, age and other circumstances, we should not allow our youngsters to drift aimlessly and job-less through society, after they have completed their period of formal schooling. This practice is cruel and ignorant, because it invites a road towards crime and drug-abuse. As we have outlined before, the young people should be absorbed into a large, Civil Task-Force for three to five years of obligatory service, after completion of their formal educational program. During this period of civil service, they will be exposed to a large variety of strenuous and physically demanding working conditions, as they are assigned to a number of communities in various parts of the world. They will, then, have an opportunity to see and help many communities, because societies will be far more integrated than they are now. In this way, our young adults will gain first-hand knowledge of the many large projects and problems faced by the societies of mankind.

During late adolescence and early maturity, the human being is at his peak of physical capabilities, and, it seems eminently reasonable to tap this human resource, and, to give our young people a broad and practical exposure to the problems and tasks that are confronting the societies of mankind. During this period of duty in the Civil Task-Force, these youngsters will make their most intensive and physically demanding contribution to society. Such a period of training and service will round-off the personality of the young adults, and it should make them into responsible, if somewhat tired, citizens. People will, then, be glad to settle into the community of their origin, or, seek a more specialised career in one of the many scientific, artistic, technological or administrative faculties and institutions of society.

We have discussed these ideas extensively before, and, we will again discuss many of these ideas, as we outline, in detail, a Constitutional blue-print for a large, modern, democratic society. The point we want to emphasise, here, is the belief, that the difficulties and dead-ends that seem to surface, again and again, in our contemporary democratic experiments, are not insurmountable problems, nor, are they the result of incorrigeable flaws of human nature, which will always defy a definitive and satisfactory solution. It should be possible to prevent the dangerous and seemingly inevitable trends towards polarisation and strife, if we learn, collectively, to maintain the conditions of justice, openness, trust and competence. These are qualities, which seem so distant and utopian today, but, eventually, they will have to be acquired and maintained for the sake of individual and collective survival.

Just as the cultural guidelines of the past led to possibilities of organisation that seemed to be out of reach for the pre-historical societies, so is it justified to expect future societies to achieve cultural guidance patterns that seem to be out of reach today. The problems of survival will pressure us to change, learn and adapt, fast, and we will have to learn, quickly, that the period of unbridled strife and the stubborn maintenance of a position of privilege and power, are inviting the catastrophe of a large-scale nuclear conflict.

Polarisations and conflicts will be minimised, if we learn, not only, to maintain the conditions of a social contract with its qualities of justice and equal opportunity within the confines of a socially integrated environment, but, we also have to learn to extend the principles of a social contract between the societies of mankind. In a way, this is already happening, but, we still have a long way to go, before we can agree amongst ourselves what the conditions of equality and justice mean, especially, if we look at the complexities involved in each an every example of strife and conflict. However, before we can fuse into a single, global social organism with an enduring viability, we should improve the quality of existence for the members of the societies, as they exist now. This involves, primarily, a concerted effort to improve the quality of existing, large-scale social leaderships.

We can avoid internal strife, to a large extent, by scrupulously maintaining the qualities of justice in society, but, in addition, we have to incorporate into our educational programs, excercises and guidelines for the enlargement of the sphere of concern and awareness for every unfolding personality. Only, if we learn to think, constantly, in terms of the interests of every member of the larger social environment, only then, will it be possible to formulate behavioural responses that are appropriate and characteristic for a lean and fit, flexible and healthy society.

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Summary

1. The concept of strength; a two-edged definition, reflecting the mechanisms of defense and offense.
   Aggressive and defensive modes of behaviour are not limited to the living systems.
   Resisting gravitational or shearing stresses, and the expansion of a hot gas.
   The quality of "strength" in living systems.
   The tendency towards "entropic dissolution" of a living system, even before it has died.
   The maintenance-energy required by a living cell.
   The "leakage" of ions into the cell represent a constant environmental stress or pressure.
   A surplus of energy results in a pressure to grow in size or numbers.
   The energy requirements of a large, multi-cellular organism.
   Support mechanisms are needed during a period of differentiation and rapid growth.
   A gradual withdrawal of the sphere of parental protection.
   The consequences of too much and too little protection for the maturation processes of the offspring.
   A look at aggressive and defensive behaviour-patterns in human beings.
   Surplus energy and the mechanisms of pro-creation.
   The maintenance-energy of a species.
   A continuous inter-play between all three instinctive poles of behaviour.
   Strength and flexibility combine in an efficient inter-play of "play and work".
   The human species aggressively manipulates the force-fields of nature in its immediate environment.
   Adaptations via the genetic and cultural codes.
   
   
   
2. The reason for the fragility of the organisation of life relates to the advantages of the properties of flexibility and reactability.
   Inorganic existence is characterised by the inability to make use of relatively "weak" energy-potentials.
   A spectrum of variability that is presented, with each generation, to the forces of natural selection.
   Flexibility; the ability to find a possibility of existence by evading or avoiding unfavourable circumstances.
   The life-form has a limited ability to withstand mechanical, physical, thermal or chemical force-fields.
   How the mechanisms of strength and flexibility influence our individual existence.
   Mental and physical faculties are in the service of survival.
   The function of a social organisation.
   A look at the faculty of "intelligence".
   Flexibility remains a random and essentially blind search for a better possibility to exist, unless the organism has the ability to "picture" its surroundings; the origins of a reality perception.
   Drifting blindly through the environment.
   A uni-dimensional environment with a vector-gradient between beneficial and harmful conditions of existence.
   The hunt; the emergence of goal-directed behaviour-patterns, and the ability to "picture" a sphere of awarenesses.
   An increasingly complex mosaic of environmental stimuli has to be "processed" by the central nervous system.
   Conscious awareness reflects the ability to think and speak.
   Our "inability" to visualise a sphere of awarenesses without verbalisable concepts.
   The concept of knowledge.
   The evolution of sense-organs, and the neurological machinery to come to a coherent, appropriate and, therefore, "intelligent" behavioural response.
   Intelligence does not necessarily mean the presence of verbalisable awarenesses.
   The parallel developments of cerebral and mental classification systems.
   The "balance of forces" a child is exposed to, while growing-up.
   The balance between the forces of the "elan vital", and a variety of challenging force-fields from the social environment.
   The advantages of embryogenesis in utero, and breast-feeding in infancy; factors that determine mammalian viability and mobility.
   The remarkable influence of psychological abilities for the species of mankind.
   
   
   
3. Coping with a gradually enlarging circle of contacts during childhood.
   Schooling is a complex process of learning skills, acquiring knowledge, and adopting attitudes that make the individual as competent as possible.
   Depending on physical strength for making a living is a precarious and short-lived possibility of existence.
   A tenuous foot-hold in society.
   The freedom to drift onto "skid-row".
   Most people enter society at the same level, or class, they were born into.
   Help from parents, friends and acquaintances.
   For a privileged, wealthy elite, the cultivation of the "right" social contacts and social skills becomes more important than acquiring professional skills and qualifications.
   The off-spring has to be pliable and dull enough to be molded into the caste of their privileged origins.
   Exceptional skills and talents require the right circumstances, as well as competent teachers in order to develop fully.
   The importance of being able to earn a living "with ease".
   Why the available vital energies are quickly "used-up".
   The balance between prestige and financial security.
   A "career" has a tendency to absorb all the available vital energies.
   The "maintenance-energy" of the social status-quo absorbs an ever greater portion of the available elan vital.
   The pressures of competitive strife.
   The ability to sustain a life of chronic pressures requires the ability to anticipate the most likely changes taking place in the near future.
   The life of a "career consumerist" represents a precarious position.
   The burden of having debt-obligations.
   Society "lives-off" big spenders without mercy.
   How is the affluent, debt-ridden consumer going to adjust to rising pressures?
   Often, flexibility has been lost, and there is no choice, but to "stick it out".
   Attitudes of resignation, and the smouldering tensions of anger and resentment.
   Major factors play a role in the many events taking place in modern, affluent societies.
   The spectre of an affluent society committing suicide.
   
   
   
4. Contrasts between the Free-enterprise and Socialist systems.
   A much higher level of individual protection is paid-for by a lagging performance in innovativeness and social adaptations.
   The danger of complacency, when there is no "existential spur".
   When people are sheltered from hunger, unemployment and slum conditions, they become very dependent upon the State to solve all their problems.
   Ultimately, the members of society will have to guide their Socialist Haven.
   The need to withdraw, gracefully, from the scene, and hand-over the powers and responsibilities of leadership to a new team.
   Constitutional Guidelines.
   A look at "normal behaviour-patterns".
   The "norm" does not have to be defined with mathematical precision.
   The central core of a generally accepted range of normality, with a shell of variable meaning for individual applications.
   Why the struggle for survival in a social environment is different from the ruthless struggle in "raw nature".
   Responsibility is not possible without the freedom to make a choice.
   The freedom to make mistakes, and to disagree with the authorities.
   To remain "normal", means, also, to remain "healthy".
   We survive by producing what we need.
   A beneficial level of existential anxiety.
   "Pure" free-enterprise is incompatible with a viable social structure.
   Socialism, and the example of an over-protective, anxious parent.
   Faults in education and cultural transmission show-up much earlier in the smaller societies.
   In the tightly-knit society, individual survival is linked to the ability of the group as a whole to survive.
   Why we have to develop insights.
   An essential linkage between rights and obligations.
   
   
   
5. The wide-ranging concept of "society"; ranging from a few people working or living together, to the world of mankind as a whole.
   Economic inter-dependence, or, the common threats of pollution.
   All social units depend on a labile and fragile "cutural code".
   A small social unit reacts more swiftly than a larger one.
   The consequences of a gigantic inertia.
   The likelyhood of a catastrophe.
   The larger societies have never really reached a status of vigorous health, as yet.
   The genetic code has been supplemented by a cultural code, and the cultural code has to be "fleshed-out" by a consciously designed code of Constitutional Guidelines.
   A challenge in diagnosis, rather than a difficult therapy.
   Recapping the principles of large-scale, social viability.
   An equal distribution of benefits for all the members.
   A generally satisfied "sense of justice".
   Class-divisions are viable, as long as a large majority agrees about their justification.
   The principles of essential equality and equal opportunity are becoming globally accepted.
   Differentiating on the basis of personal merit.
   We need to bestow our affection and admiration on people who obviously deserve their success.
   No need for a differentiation in standards of living.
   Erroneous free-enterprise concepts.
   A wasteful way of "evening-out the score".
   Every youngster should compete from a position of essential equality.
   
   
   
6. The virtues of social transparence.
   The obligations of leadership are in full view.
   We have to be able to "correct" a defective leadership.
   The complexities of an enlarging social unit, and the growth of cultural manifestations.
   The sphere of individual reality perceptions includes only a small fragment of the larger social environment.
   Mechanisms to foster large-scale social cohesion.
   The bonds of communal belligerence.
   A rising awareness about the dangers of synchronised emotions.
   The period of unbridled territorial expansion is over.
   Cultural and religious justifications for the stratification of a society are disappearing.
   Dictatorships of the right, and the left, are becoming increasingly untenable.
   Lingering fallacies and hypocrisies in international attitudes and communications.
   Fundamental problems with politically diverse, democratically governed societies.
   Making a leadership accountable to the people places a remarkable burden of responsibility on collective insights.
   An attitude of collective responsibility depends on sophisticated insights.
   A fundamental change in the mechanisms of aggressive expansionism and territorial defense.
   The long and complex road of social integration.
   The hierarchical order in the small, natural social unit.
   The emergence of a multi-individual leadership structure.
   The conscious contract of essential equality.
   Satisfying the sense of justice.
   The draw-backs of an inherited leadership position.
   The problems of leadership succession in the larger societies can only be solved through free and fair elections by an informed and responsible electorate.
   The need for a universal franchise to vote for the candidate of our choice.
   
   
   
7. The democratisation of political leadership.
   Industrialisation has brought-about rapid social changes.
   Successful efforts to re-distribute the material benefits of an expanding economy.
   A social "Contra-Reformation" to the challenge of Communism.
   When a majority of people became "consumers".
   The problems of the modern, Capitalist democracies are related to an unbridled "freedom of choice" in the selection of an economic enterprise.
   Political candidates, who are trying to "buy", or promise, their way to power.
   Many inter-dependent factors determine the evolution and destiny of the modern, affluent, Capitalist, free-enterprise democracies.
   An unhealthy dependence upon continuing economic expansion.
   A "dead-end" situation.
   Being introvert and insensitive to the needs of others.
   The affluent consumer is like a spoiled child.
   A confusing stream of commercial propaganda.
   The solution of a simple, frugal way of life.
   At the present time, it is impossible for everyone to "opt-out".
   A life-style of frugal self-reliance means, "hard work".
   The fraud of inflation or monetary devaluation.
   The opportunity for political leaders to set a good example.
   The need for trust.
   People must have a clear idea what society is all about.
   Dispelling the myth, that a government has an unlimited supply of money.
   When the awareness has been lost that there has to be a balance between input and output.
   Contradictions to the democratic principle.
   
   
   
8. How should a large, democratic society be organised?
   A comparison with the efficient behaviour-patterns of a single, multi-cellular organism.
   A leadership has to have the well-being of the entire society in mind.
   Preventing, at all costs, the mechanisms of polarisation.
   The contract of essential equality.
   The need to acquire an accurate, comprehensive picture of all relevant happenings taking place in society.
   The element of social transparence.
   A radical abolition of the right to secrecy of action, planning, financial income and social contacts.
   A shell of privacy is needed to relax and reflect.
   Learning to recognise and abolish hypocrisies.
   Too many people can drift through life, without making any contribution to their social environment.
   Putting a stagnating and paralysed country "back on its feet".
   Why we have to abolish all pressure-groups.
   Preserving, scrupulously, the social contract of essential equality with carefully crafted Constitutional Guidelines.
   If we want to scrutinise others, we should also allow ourselves to be scrutinised.
   Various "quid pro quo's".
   A complex balance of forces.
   A penetrating openness.
   Everything will be judged on the quality of fairness.
   Integrating our adolescents into society, as soon as possible.
   Becoming responsible, if somewhat tired, citizens.
   We will have to find a Constitutional solution for the short-comings of our genetic endowment.
   An accomplishment that is needed for the sake of survival.
   Extending the principles of the social contract to international relations.
   Thinking, constantly, in terms of globally shared interests.

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