THE MARTYR-HERO


heroes, saints and martyrs





A Study in Thought

sa079



by





Marius Heuff

Chapter 1

Content

The need to emulate exemplary behaviour.
The process of "becoming someone".
We create the image of those we admire and worship.
Shifting to other beacons and guiding principles, when we become a full-grown personality.
The mysterious glow of "un-reachability".
Populating the Christian Heavens with an intricate hierarchy of saintly souls.
The survival of a small group may depend on the willingness of able defenders to risk or sacrifice their lives in combat or the hunt.
An intense atmosphere of repentence, and the sacrifice of something truly significant; the road towards human sacrifice.
Creating an attitude of commitment and confidence.
Fallen heroes become martyrs and saints.
Psychological mechanisms that lead us through difficult and turbulent times.
Mechanisms of cultural differentiation.
Heroes are "inherited" as a cultural legacy.
We tend to identify, personally, with people and achievements that are "closer by".
The type of hero we select, subconsciously, reflects, accurately, our needs, interests and priorities.

What makes us admire our heroes, worship our martyrs and pray to our saints? Why do we need heroes to look-up to? Why do we need people, either living now, or long since dead, to guide our goals and achievements? Perhaps, you may question the statement that we "need" our heroes, and, it may even be stranger to accept, that our heroes have a definite function and use for us. Often, we are only aware of the fact, that these are people we greatly admire, and, yes, indeed, if we think about it, we will acknowledge that this act of admiration results in an effort to emulate, or "mirror", at least, some of the qualities we perceive in these people. Few of us will be able to say that we never worshipped "heroes", or, that we were not influenced by the artistic or sport's achievements of people we greatly admired. This is especially true during the period of adolescence, when we still had a great variety of opportunities to "become" and develop into a specific direction.

We see the phenomenon of "exemplary people" all around us. In our affluent societies, the hero seems to be, most often, a sport's-figure, a popular singer or a musician, but, those, who are interested in the arts, politics, history or religion, see everywhere a great number of outstanding personalities who may capture their fancy, depending, of course, upon the particular field or topic of interest.

Usually, the hero, saint or martyr is someone we do not know personally, and, the imagery of a saint, who died for his or her beliefs, or, a martyr, who sacrificed himself for the good of the people, develops slowly and is nurtured by tradition and legends. However, we see, also, a trend to admire people in our contemporary society or local community, if they have done or accomplished something of great value, but the human frailties of those whom we admire "close by", and, perhaps, envy somewhat, prevents us from adopting an attitude of outright worship.

Indeed, there seems to be good evidence for the idea, that we create, to a large extent, the imagery of those we admire and worship. Certainly, the basic outlines of the personality and his or her accomplishments have been given by the facts that have been generally accepted within the community, but, beyond this, we create, very much, in our own mind and imagination, the detailed imagery of our heroes and saints. Characteristically, we strip the object of our worship of any traits that could be seen as a human frailty or weakness, and, we emphasise those characteristics that have become the focus of our admiration.

The attitude of admiration implies, that we value, very highly, the achievements and attitudes of our hero; to the point, that this person or his achievements become a shiny beacon for our goals and ambitions, but, at the same time, we wonder, and doubt, whether or not we will ever be able to equal, or, even, come close to the object of our awe. The moment we think, that it is possible for us to accomplish the same thing, some of this awe and reverence disappears, and, while we will always treasure the memory of our hero, the image starts to pale somewhat. Then, we are beginning to find other beacons and guiding principles that are able to absorb our elan vital, and help us to become a full-grown personality.

The hero remains, therefore, primarily, a long-term objective for our ambitions and drives, especially, if we clothe these achievements in a saintly and somewhat mysterious glow of "un-reachability", and, we see indeed an aura of "sanctity" or unreachable exaltation develop in the imagery of our most precious and meaningful heroes. If this aura of sanctity involves a religious deed or achievement that is admired by the whole community, the individual is, often, officially proclaimed as a Saint or Hero, because such exemplary behaviour is extremely useful to the community as a whole, and must certainly have found favour with God or the religious deities of the community.

Sometimes, we elaborate, extensively, the imagery of the favours our religious heroes must have obtained, and, we populate the Christian Heaven with an intricate hierarchy of saintly souls. They represent a peculiarly stratified and hierarchical order; a large community of Saints, who have found a place according to their merits; at least, according to the judgement of the living and worshipping generations. Nevertheless, we, the living generations, accept, by and large, the judgements of the past, and our religious heritage becomes, then, a colourful mixture of legends and miraculous achievements by people who have earned a high level of respect and admiration from the faithful.

The religious imagery and beliefs of the Christian Faith have elevated the act of sacrificing one's life, as the highest contribution an individual can make to his society, but, the subconscious recognition, that it is extremely valuable for the community if some members can be motivated to sacrifice their lives for the community as a whole, represents an essential element in the process of social evolution, and has been a part of man's collective behaviour, long before Christianity was formulated.

From an early stage in man's awarenesses, it must have become apparent, that the survival of a small group of people depended on the willingness of able defenders to risk, or, even, sacrifice their lives in combat with an intruder, or, when dealing with a threat or a need of one kind or another. The risk of confronting a threat, or an enemy, has always required a great deal of courage and determination, in particular, if the circumstances were not favourable. Sometimes, it was difficult to galvanise a mood of confident and exuberant optimism, and, we know, that many soldiers have marched towards the battle-fronts, apparently in high spirits, but with secret doubts and fears in their hearts about the outcome of an impending battle.

The need to sacrifice something that is dear in order to find safety and a continued possibility to exist, has been recognised from an early stage in man's development, but, of course, this awareness was not grasped in modern, psychological terms or insights. It was formulated as a religious code of ethics, expressed in rites of sacrifice and acts of atonement.

The ability to bring sacrifices has been practiced and maintained, almost constantly, throughout the social evolution of early man. If a society or small community came into danger or faced a difficult decision, (and it always did), the adverse pressures and anxieties were interpreted as an alienation or offense of the protecting deities, and, the deities had to be appeased with truly meaningful acts of sacrifice and atonement for any known neglect or unknown wrong-doing. The intense atmosphere of repentence, and the sacrifice of something that was truly significant for the members of the community, to the point of sacrificing their own children and other members of the community, created an attitude of commitment and confidence; commitment to defend a cause for which already such a high price had been paid, and confidence, that such an act of sacrifice would surely find favour and would bring the assistance of the gods in the up-coming battle with the enemy.

We see, indeed, how important it is to create an atmosphere of confidence and commitment to do battle, before the battle is begun, and, because the attitudes of courage and commitment have been greatly stimulated by the rituals of sacrifice and atonement, the existential anxieties and fears for personal safety are suppressed, or, even, completely overcome.

No wonder, then, that, those, who could "rise" to the occasion, fight strongly and courageously, and, who were willing to die on the battle-field, would be admired as heroes and saints, in particular, if the battle proved to be successful enough to give the community a further lease on life. Even, if the battle was lost and the community enslaved, the memory of those who tried to halt the enemy and were slain in the process, would become a treasure of admiration and worship. The fallen heroes became martyrs and saints, strengthening the resolve of those, who had to endure captivity and enslavement for generations to come.

The psychological mechanisms of worshipping our heroes and venerating those who died for us, or, who led us through difficult and turbulent times, are shared by all human beings, because they are a part of our common biological heritage. These psychological mechanisms form a part of our primary, emotional defenses, in spite of the fact, that the choice of our heroes depends, entirely, on the history and cultural legacy of our community.

In a small community, everyone knows each other intimately, and the communal experiences are continuously shared amongst all the members. We see, then, a culturally homogeneous group, where the members share stories and legends, as well as the many "explanations" and interpretations that guide them through the vagaries of life and satisfy their questions and doubts.

However, after the emergence of the much larger society, we see a variety of small sub-groupings within such a large social environment. These sub-groupings are remarkably different from each other, partly, as the result of a merger of previously more independently existing communities, and, partly as a result of the processes of "cultural differentiation". Cultural differentiation is the process whereby a previously homogeneous group of people splits into groups that differ in the way they live, speak, behave and believe. Such a "cultural split" always happens, whenever groups of people are beginning to live in relative isolation from each other, and, we see, here, an exact parallel with the physical differentiation of a single species into two or more different species' as a result of geographical or ecological isolation.

The cultural mosaic of the larger societies has, indeed, become very complex. While the common historical bonds of the past are still shared as religious beliefs and practices that become more ritualistic and rigid, there is, at the same time, a tendency to identify with "more accessible", locally relevant personalities and events that have a greater meaning for the members of a particular sub-grouping. This, too, is a manifestation of cultural differentiation, which leads, eventually, to a religious differentiation, in particular, if the cementing super-structure of a large, overall society begins to fall-apart and allows the various segments to diverge and become antagonistic, suspicious and hostile factions.

Let us come back, here, to a discussion of the formation of our hero-imagery. We see, then, that our heroes are, in part, "inherited" as a cultural legacy. This includes a group of secular, historical as well as religious heroes, who have officially been acclaimed as heroes, saints and martyrs. These "official" heroes, however, do not mean all that much to the living generations of the larger, complex societies, unless we happen to be able to identify personally with a particular figure. Since our interests are usually not concerned with an act of self-sacrifice for the communal good, nor a particularly deep study and affinity for the official religion and culture of our society, we tend to identify with people and achievements that are "closer by".

If we are primarily interested in sports and "pop-music", it is logical, that we will eventually select, subconsciously, a number of people, whose talents, achievements or musical creations, we like and admire. If we are studying, more seriously, at school or a universtiy, or, if we happen to have an interest in the major artists, scholars or historical figures of the past, then, our heroes are going to be selected from these fields of knowledge and expertise.

The point we want to make, here, is the fact, that, a truly meaningful hero must be a useful beacon for the guidance of our ambitions and achievements. If the larger, overall society has become somewhat "foreign", then, we are less able to identify with the official heroes and saints, and, the process of cultural differentiation may easily progress to the point, where an essential incompatibility develops between the various sub-groupings; another parallel with the differentiation of species'.

Few of us want to die for our country and do battle with an enemy, in particular, if we have had the good fortune to grow-up in a relatively stable, secure and prosperous society, but, we have to find a place in the social environment, and, if we want to shine in a career in the arts, the sports, the sciences, the fields of adventure and exploration, or, in any other form of human achievement, then, we select our heroes accordingly.

These mechanisms are logical, and, at least, intuitively, well known, but, we want to emphasise and clarify the mechanisms intellectually, because we want to explore, on the one hand, the relationships between our needs and our ability to "learn" and develop our personality, and, on the other hand, we want to explore the impact of these emotional and largely subconscious mechanisms on our outlook and behaviour-patterns.

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Chapter 2

Content

The evolution of behavioural flexibility.
The need to program the "cerebral computer".
The act of "imitation" functions as a valuable short-cut to finding an appropriate response, as long as there is an insufficient foundation of personal experiences.
Influential examples for imitation during early childhood.
Imitation is, phylogenetically, the oldest form of learning.
The choice of a hero-image is culturally determined, and depends on personal or local circumstances.
The drive to engage in emulative behaviour is genetically endowed.
Mechanisms for "fine-tuning" our behaviour.
A stream of sense impressions becomes quickly classified into pre-existing and well-established categories.
There is "nothing new", as the days, weeks, months and years slide by.
Cerebral and mental systems of classification.
Verbalisable structures of beliefs.
The mechanisms of learning by imitation are part of a legacy of behavioural flexibility.
A constellation of factors determines the extent of our sphere of awarenesses and interests, loyalties and suspicions.
The value of studying patterns of identification.
When we have nothing in common, anymore.

If we follow the lines of natural evolution, we see, that the large, multi-cellular animals, eventually, start to explore a mode of living that tries to make use of rapidly changing possibilities of existence. If opportunities fluctuate rapidly, there is, obviously, not enough time for these possibilities or opportunities to shape the genetic instructions of a species in such a way, that the anatomical and physiological features of the organism are able to make use of a particular set of favourable circumstances. The only way a large organism with a slow genetic turn-over can make use of a temporary opportunity, is to develop a measure of flexibility in its behaviour. This means, that each living member will learn to "monitor" a large variety of conditions and circumstances, and, such a member has to have the ability to store and classify a large number of experiences, before it can recognise an "opportunity" that may last for a short period, or, perhaps, only for a few fleeting moments.

We have traced, before, the development of behavioural flexibility, as well as the changes in the central nervous system that are necessary for a successful shift from genetically instructed behaviour to a behaviour-pattern relying, at least, in part, on the recognition of a similar or analogous experience.

In addition to the development of the ability to learn from experience, the evolution of flexible behaviour developed, quickly, an important short-cut. We have discussed before, the reasons, why the evolution of behavioural flexibility led to a remarkably vulnerable period for the younger members of such a flexible species, because, if an individual member of the species has to "learn" to formulate the appropriate behavioural responses according to past experiences, it is logical, that the newly born and immature members need a prolonged period of protection and careful guidance in order to survive. Their behavioural "computers" have not been programmed as yet, because they have not had sufficient experiences to construct a successful behavioural program.

In order to minimise this vulnerability in the development of the members of a flexible species, nature "introduced" an interesting short-cut by favouring the mechanism of "imitation". If these behaviourally flexible youngsters do not have a sufficient base of personal experience to synthesise an adequate behavioural response, they can, at least, minimise this inadequacy by imitating the behaviour of their parents, on the subconscious assumption that this parental behaviour is successful, because it has led to survival into adulthood and the ability to pro-create.

We see, throughout the realm of the behaviourally flexible species', that this is an extremely important mechanism, and, it antedates, in many ways, the specific development of behavioural flexibility. The human species is, so far as we know, the most advanced species on the ladder of behavioural flexibility, and, we have discussed, on many occasions, how elaborate the human learning processes have become.

Human youngsters need many years of schooling and training before their mental computers are fully programmed and developed for the tasks and responsibilities of an adequate and mature function in society. These learning processes are a complex combination of culturally transferred ideas, concepts and verbalisable forms of knowledge, together with a series of attitudes, beliefs and interpretations that are taken-over, or "imitated", with a much greater reliance on the processes of subconscious copying, rather than understanding and accepting the wisdom of a specific solution or approach.

In the early years of childhood, the most influential examples for imitation are, of course, the parents or the guardians, and, even, at a later age, we see, that the youngsters and adolescents imitate, not only, the behaviour of their parents, but, their ideas, prejudices and opinions as well.

However, the parents and guardians are "too close" to the youngster and the adolescent to function, adequately, as a long-term ideal to be emulated, and, in particular, in the more complex societies, we see, that many youngsters have the opportunity, and the time, to search for ideals and goals, in particular during their formative years in school.

In a highly tense and polarised society, the youngsters will be absorbed, quickly, into the grim tasks of survival and combating the enemy, and, we see, then, a more pronounced choice of heroes and martyrs in the sphere of the "official" cultural legacy. There is then less time and opportunity to become absorbed in a career in the sports, the arts or the sciences.

Indeed, it seems justified to say, that our tendency to "latch onto" the exemplary behaviour or achievements of another individual, together with the adoption of an attitude of admiration, or, even, worship, is a reflection of the most ancient, the most basic, and, phylogenetically, the oldest form of learning, which we have inherited as a biological trait in this complex biological heritage that underlies so much of our more instinctive behaviour-patterns.

The choice of our heroes, the emphasis on specific cultural or political models, as well as the beliefs, opinions and attitudes we adopt from our social surroundings, depend on the chances of our birth, our family relationships, as well as the time-period into which we have been born, but, the formation of an idealised imagery of a hero, our attitudes of admiration and worship, as well as the determination and dedication to achieve or behave in accordance with the ideas we have chosen, are instinctive drives that live in us all. These instinctive drives are part and parcel of the rough outline of behavioural instructions which we can summarise under the concept of a "biological heritage" and are, therefore, genetically encoded.

It is important to remind ourselves about these varying levels of "input" through which we learn and shape our behavioural responses. We are quite well aware of the fact, that, throughout our entire life, we collect a large series of experiences, and, at least, in theory, we should be able to refer to an ever enlarging repertoir of experiences, which could make our behaviour ever more appropriate and more finely in tune with the need to respond adequately.

However, after we have developed a "set way" of interpreting our experiences, we do not really learn much from this continuous stream of experiences, because these experiences become quickly classified and categorised into pre-existing and well-established categories of classification. Then, we have stopped learning, because we only learn from an experience, if we recognise something unusual about it. This unusual feature alerts us, and makes us think and re-orden the way we classify and categorise our experiences. If we keep labeling all our contemporary experiences or incoming sense-impressions as "familiar", and place them into pre-existing categories, then, there is literally "nothing new", as the days, the weeks, the months and the years slide by.

How do we acquire these systems for categorising or classifying everything we see, hear or experience? Indeed, this is an interesting question, which has been discussed extensively before. Partly, these classification systems are determined by the way our brain and body have been shaped as a result of our embryological development under the instructions of the genetic code, but, partly, especially, in the human species, our experiences are classified and interpreted according to what we believe to be true. These belief-structures are culturally determined; at least, the content of our beliefs depends entirely on the cultural specifics of the environment in which we have grown-up, but, the fact, that we all form some sort of a belief-structure, points to the fact that the tendency to form a structure of beliefs, in contrast to the contents of a belief, is, once again, under the influence of the genetic code.

On previous occasions, we have discussed all these aspects much more in detail, and, we only want to remind ourselves, here, about the basic functions of our mind and brain. We have discussed, for example, how the "interpretations" of sense-impressions and experiences are genetically determined, (at least, to a large extent), in animals that do not form a system of conscious or verbalisable beliefs. The "cerebral classification" systems of a particular species are the reason why animals of a certain species react, by and large, in the same way, when exposed to similar circumstances. Yet, it is possible for "abnormal" reactions to occur, if a member of a species has been subjected to highly unusual, often artificially created experiences, as we see, e.g., in contacts with human beings.

In addition to a set of verbalisable belief-structures, which gives such a wide spread to human reality perceptions and interpretations, we have hinted upon this broad, powerful, but less consciously realised sphere of guidance structures which has been taken-over from our social environment, largely, through an act of imitation. These are the prevailing attitudes, opinions, prejudices, as well as a large set of "values" that are current in the cultural environment we are growing-up in. Included in these values and attitudes are the "beacons" guiding a society or community. These beacons are the heroes, saints and martyrs, who are remembered and worshipped within this community in a mixture of secular remembrance and religious acts of worship.

It is clear, that these mechanisms of subconscious acceptance and imitation are a much more basic and instinctive form of learning compared to the conscious evaluation of a set of experiences, or "data", or, the sequence of logical conclusions and deductions which lets us form a specific interpretation about a particular observation. The more primitive and instinctive behaviour-patterns are a reflection of the fact, that they developed much earlier in the process of natural evolution, and it is reasonable to interpret these same phenomena in human behaviour, including the transfer of behavioural guidance-patterns, as essentially similar to, or, perhaps, an elaboration of, the imitative behaviour-patterns that developed already as a protective mechanism to assist the vulnerable young of all behaviourally flexible species', long before we see an evolutionary trend towards the emergence of "man". For example, this imitative instinct is, even, well developed in many birds, in spite of the fact, that they do not really represent species' with a significant element of behavioural flexibility.

In species' that make use of the act of imitation to get their young started on a somewhat sheltered road towards maturity, we see, that the specifics of the imitated behaviour are determined by the specific circumstances and requirements of a particular environment. We see, also, that the content of beliefs, attitudes and specific heroic examples depends upon the circumstances and features of an individual and his social environment. However, the mechanism itself, as well as the tendency to make use of this mechanism, are determined and shaped by the genetic instructions of our "biological heritage". We share this heritage with all the members of mankind, with only minor variations between the various races or sub-groupings of the human species.

Together with the more consciously verbalisable beliefs, these values, attitudes, opinions, judgements and exemplary beacons are powerful organisers of our behaviour, and, they determine, to a large extent, the contents of the sphere of our reality perceptions. It is, therefore, not difficult to acknowledge, that this constellation of factors determines, almost exclusively, the extent of our sphere of awarenesses and interests, our loyalties and mistrusts; whom we like and dislike; who are friends and who are enemies. Of course, this is not a very startling conclusion, because we are all aware of the fact, that our goals, aspirations and desires, as well as the people we admire greatly, reveal quite accurately, how we judge the world around us.

However, if we are convinced, that our heroes determine, to a large extent, our outlook on life, we have to be concerned with the heroes and values of other people, because in scrutinising their heroes and saints, their values and beliefs, we may detect evidence for severe tensions, frustrations and situations of injustice, which require attention and correction, if we want to avoid bloody conflicts and an escalation of the incidences of suffering and injustice.

We are, by and large, still too complacent about someone else's values, judgements and goals. If I look at our teetering and seething societies of affluence, I can see, clearly, how little is left of a common cultural core with its generally accepted heroes and exemplary forms of behaviour. All we see is a confusing, chaotic and nearly uncontrollable mass of people, who are trying to sooth their frustrations, and, who are desperately looking for an outlet for these tensions. We have nothing in common, anymore, except, perhaps, this blind, all-pervasive fear, that we are on the wrong track, and, that our world is close to a collapse, for one reason or another.

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Chapter 3

Content

Value-judgements are absorbed from the cultural environment.
Unquestionable values.
Encountering people, who make us think and justify what we believe to be true.
A specific "cultural veneer".
The role of beliefs and value-judgements.
A review of physiological mechanisms.
Relying heavily on acquired skills, learned abilities, and a body of knowledge and experience.
Becoming a "master".
Entertainment; giving the people what they want to hear and see, experience and believe.
Searching for "true models" to imitate or emulate.
A much needed cohesion for becoming an integrated member of society.
Efficient development of the personality requires a combination of evolutionary "older" and "newer" forms of learning.
Our interests are slowly shaping into a more precise understanding of specific fields of knowledge and skills.
Becoming sensitive to the beauty of an accomplishment.
Having encountered something of great value is an emotional and developmental milestone.
The social environment may fail to recognise the importance of a "discovery" by a youngster or adolescent.
Too often, a youngster is left on his own, wandering and searching aimlessly, year after year.
A "beacon", shrouded in an irrealistic haze, where fact and fantasy produce an exciting imagery that escapes a thorough analysis or precise understanding.

So far, we have sketched an overall outline of the mechanisms that play a role in the selection of our heroes, but, let us now discuss these happenings in more detail, and, let us see, whether we can sketch a series of awarenesses, sensations and observations we can all agree with and accept as valid and truthful. Most of our values and judgements about what is right and wrong, have been absorbed from our cultural environment in a more or less subconscious manner. At least, if we would be questioned, closely, why we judge so and so, or, why we have accepted the values that are so obvious and self-evident to us, we would be at a loss to explain them in any detail, or with any degree of precision, and, we would look with suspicion and hostility at the individual who scrutinises these values closely.

The reason is, of course, that these subconscious and culturally shared values, attitudes and judgements, are never questioned by any established citizen of the community, because they are taken for granted. This package of unquestioned values forms the basis of our cultural pride, our ethnic origin, or our sense of belonging, and, without this package of unquestioned values and judgements we would not be able to inter-act confidently with our realities. Moreover, questioning these values or scrutinising the validity and justification of our opinions and attitudes, would classify the questioner as a "stranger", and, perhaps, an enemy. Certainly, he can not be trusted, and he can not be regarded as belonging to the same society or culture we come from and identify with.

Perhaps, it is difficult for many of us to acknowledge, that we possess such a package of values, attitudes and judgements that are considered to be unquestionably true, and, whose denial or scrutiny would evoke our anger and anxiety. Perhaps, we have not really experienced an encounter with someone, who does not share this basic package of values and judgements. Perhaps, we have never encountered people who make us think and justify what we belive in. If such is the case, we will hardly be able to acknowledge the truthfulness of this description, but, many of us, in particular, in the more complex societies, have become sufficiently aware of these factors, that we can agree to be surrounded by such a cultural core of values, and, perhaps, prejudices.

I certainly hope, that more and more people will be forced to think about these aspects, and, I believe, that it is inevitable for us to become more aware of the peculiarities of our particular cultural "veneer", because we see or hear about so many different, strange and foreign peoples and personalities, who behave and believe so differently. True, our initial reaction is always; "they are wrong and we are right", but, if we are able to think about it, more clearly, and, if we are able to see how strongly these people we judge to be completely in error, believe to be right and can argue quite well about their beliefs and opinions, then, we take a second look at ourselves and our beliefs. Perhaps, we are, then, able to perceive the relativity of our particular beliefs, values, attitudes and judgements.

Allright, let us assume, that you agree with the concept that we all have our peculiarities in beliefs, attitudes and opinions, and, let us even assume, that you can appreciate, vaguely, the idea, that our most precious values may not have the same validity or strength of conviction for people who live and believe quite differently. Let us assume, that you can agree, at least, to some extent, that our beliefs and values are "cultural accidents" or "specifics", which happen to have become relevant for me or for the social grouping I belong to. "Explain to me then", you may say, "why we believe in so many different facts and values, and, explain, also, why we can agree or communicate with some people, while we seem to get nowhere, if we try to discuss problems or observations with someone else, even, if we speak, technically, the same language. Explain the role and function of our beliefs and values, of our ideals and our heroes. Explain to me, why we need these ideals and images of perfection and desirability, and, explain, to what extent, these notions and ideas may hinder or limit us in our attempts to understand ourselves and other people".

As a living organism, we have an "elan vital"; a drive to grow and unfold our potentials, and, this growth-pressure, or vitality, is the main driving force behind our organic formation, as our body and organs take shape in our mother's womb. Even, after birth, the first few years are occupied, primarily, with physical growth and the completion of our organ-systems, but, we also start to receive a stream of sense-impressions which is virtually un-interrupted, except, perhaps, when we are in a state of deep, dream-less sleep. This stream of sense-impressions comes to an end, permanently, when we die, or, after we have become deeply unconscious or comatose.

We have also discussed the fact, that the human infant is particularly ill-equipped to look after itself, and, the human being needs a period of approximately fifteen to twenty years of guidance and protection, before it can function entirely independently. The time required for guidance and learning depends, to a large extent, upon the position or function an individual is going to occupy in society, after the period of growth and learning has been completed. If we have few ambitions, and, if want to rely on our natural physical strength and health as an unskilled labourer, all we have to do, is to wait until our body has reached the stage of early maturity and we should be able to function, at least, for a number of years, in a position that requires hard physical, but essentially unskilled work.

However, most of us realise, that this is not a very desirable situation, and, we know, that our position in society is more valuable and more secure, if we can contribute a specific skill. Certain skills require an extra-ordinary lengthy preparation and special talents, but, most, average individuals are certainly capable of learning a skilled job in one field or another. However, to learn a skill takes time and effort, but, frequently, a skilled job is less demanding physically, and, we can still function adequately in our job, even, after our physical strength has started to decline.

The point we want to make, here, is the fact, that the human being relies to an extra-ordinary degree on acquired skills, learned abilities, bodies of knowledge and experience, which take time to be formed or laid-down. Most specialty functions or skilled jobs require a measure of "conscious learning", where we absorb knowledge that is handed-down to us by our teachers. We are given the opportunity to practice a skill and technique, before we are considered to be a "master", or, at least, a competent technician.

However, the direction of development we go into, is determined, only partly, by non-emotional factors, such as chance-contacts, needs, or a natural affinity. While growing-up, most of us dream of accomplishing something special; to become a great artist, a gifted musician, an athlete in one field or another, a scientist and scholar, or a medical doctor or a surgeon. Most of these professions have a "high profile", which means, that the professional and his work, are a matter of public interest and admiration, but, at the same time, the "dramatisations" in stories, novels, books, films or screen-plays, are such, that an aura of mystery and unreachability is created.

In a society where the writer, the professional entertainer, the actors and film-makers have to look for a "commercial success", we can be sure, that the picture given to the people about their idols, their heroes, their objects of interest, is not always created in a scrupulously honest attitude of portraying "the truth and nothing but the truth". We all know, that these presentations and dramatisations are deliberately made "exciting or interesting", because the public is given a form of entertainment rather than a subject of information or education, and, the public is given to hear, see and experience what it wants to hear, see, experience and believe.

Yet, our youngsters, in particular during their adolescent years, are searching for "true models". They are pondering what to become, and, most of us, if we look back to our younger years, remember, that we dreamt about a career in one of the spectacular and high-profile fields or professions. Why were we attracted to these fields of endeavour? Why did we want to become such and such a professional or artist, or an athlete like so and so? What motivated us in choosing one or other personality and profession as an ideal to guide and streamline our ambitions? We have to look at the complex motivations that play a role when selecting our goals and choosing our heroes, and, we should also look at the mechanisms, how, and why, such strongly goal-oriented behaviour-patterns gave us a much needed measure of cohesion in our search for becoming an integrated member of society.

Let us keep in mind, then, that, learning, by identifying with an individual or personality we admire, and, by imitating and emulating the behaviour and the accomplishments of those we choose as a model, is a much "older" much more emotional, but, also, much more natural and satisfying way of learning and becoming, compared to the more intellectual methods of learning, where we try to absorb concepts, ideas and knowledge in order to master a skill. All efficient and useful forms of learning require a combination of the "old" and the evolutionary newer, more intellectual forms of learning.

We need the process of identification with those we admire in order to harnass the will and sustain the energy to bite through periods of hard work and disappointments. However, if we fail to make good use of an intellectual capability to communicate with others, and, to master a series of complex difficulties by patient and careful analysis, understanding and practice, we will never be able to reach the high level of perfection and skill which becomes, often, such a shining beacon of beauty.

In our younger years, as we are just beginning to look around us beyond the immediate circle of family and friends, we are becoming aware, not only, of the need to "become" someone, to learn something in order to find a place in the larger society, but, we also start to admire and appreciate the beauty of something done to perfection. Our interests are slowly shaping into a more precise understanding of one field or another, and, at the same time, we become sensitive to the beauty of an accomplishment, in particular, if this accomplishment has required a high level of dedication, persistence, training and will-power.

Now, we are ready to choose or select our heroes, and, the process often occurs very rapidly. Suddenly, we come across something, a personality and his or her achievements, which impresses us enormously. The experience has all the features of a real "encounter", even, if we do not know or meet the individual personally, but are in contact with him or her through the artistic or professional achievements we have come to admire or, even, worship. We are constantly pre-occupied with our "discovery", for days on end, and the influence of this experience of having discovered something of great value, is an emotional and developmental milestone, because our behaviour, our outlook, and our ambitions, will be coloured by it for years to come.

I believe, that most young people go through such an experience, but the effects or the intensity of the experience varies. For some, such a discovery is, indeed, a lasting beacon, which shapes and influences the development of the young personality for many years to come. Others have more fleeting experiences, and shift their interests and loyalties rather quickly. However, then, the guiding effect of the identification process becomes much less effective, and, there will be an increased tendency to drop the enthousiasm for an exceptional achievement in an attitude of suppressed pessimism; "if we are not going to reach anything worthwhile; if we are too dumb, or not talented enough, to do something outstanding, we may as well turn our attention to the pleasures of today".

Obviously, the occurrence of such an experience as discovering an object of art, a personality with a great deal of beauty and persuasiveness, is a highly valuable experience, because, here, teachers and educators have a golden opportunity to guide a highly motivated youngster onto a path of achievement, satisfaction and self-discipline. Too often, this process is not understood, or made poorly use of, by the people in the environment of such a "stricken" youngster. In part, the value of the motivational drive and the "locking into" such an ideal are not recognised, or, these mechanisms are not appreciated for the potentials that have been opened-up.

Sometimes, the social environment and the teachers of such a youngster do not have the insight, the courage, or the energy, to guide an ambitious but undisciplined youngster into a realistic pathway. Indeed, quite often, the achievements that are being admired, seem to be out of reach for an apparently not so talented youngster, but, even, more important, teachers, parents and educators often fail to understand, clearly, how a youngster should be guided, after he or she has developed a strongly motivated drive to achieve something.

If the youngster is irrealistic, a dreamer, undisciplined, and, if the motivation is subconsciously geared towards the achievement of recognition or fame, the educators in the environment fail to really get through to such a youngster, and, they fail to provide a firm framework of guidance, which amplifies the initial enthousiasm of the youngster into a much broader and deeper understanding for the beauty, the aims, as well as the real objectives that lie behind a chosen profession. Too often, the youngster is left on his own, wandering and searching aimlessly, year after year, for a way to fulfill his dreams and aspirations, and, it often remains a mystery, why he or she is not accomplishing anything.

It is not easy to develop a firm and realistic grip over one's ambitions and potentials, if the proper insight and leadership is not available. Often, the individual will never really learn, why he did not achieve his dreams; what the handicaps were; to what extent his failure was due to a lack of self-discipline, a lack of talent or guidance, a lack of the right circumstances or "lucky breaks", or, to what extent the imagery of adoration was distorted so badly by wishful thinking and day-dreaming, that the imagery of identification lost the ability to function as an obtainable objective.

In spite of the fact, that, most of us will have to live our entire lives with a feeling, that, we, somehow, "missed the boat"; that we failed to achieve what we wanted, or, just failed to make use of the opportunties life gave us, we should not underestimate the value of this "beacon", even, if the beacon was never really approached closely and always remained shrouded in a somewhat irrealistic haze, where fact and fantasy produced an exciting and intriguing imagery that escaped a thorough analysis or understanding.

Sooner or later, we learn to stop blaming the failures of our lives on our parents and teachers, on our social environment, or, on the cirumstances, and, we learn, eventually, to stop blaming ourselves, because we are re-evaluating what is really important. Our priorities and ambitions are shifting, and, even, the judgement of success and failure looks so different, later in life, compared to the dreams of adolescence.

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Chapter 4

Content

On the sea of life, the navigational beacons never remain static in position or appearance.
Learning to resign ourselves to the position we find ourselves in.
Wondering, whether we have seen any land at all.
The real value of the light-houses we have seen.
Overwhelmed by a feeling of insignificance.
We have to give our lives a sense of direction and purpose.
Rigid behaviour-patterns are self-defeating.
The criteria of productivity.
Cautious judgements.
A ruthless concentration upon personal achievements accentuates anti-social attitudes and non-ethical behaviour-patterns.
Sports and the arts in Socialist nations.
All hard-working achievers are tempted to translate their achievements into a personal or financial gain.
Defections to the West; for the sake of monetary gains?
The cloak of "artistic freedom".
Let us not react with anger or despair at "reactionary" or "counter-revolutionary" attitudes.
Contrasting judgements about political heroes.
A hero for some, an arch-enemy for others.
It is easy to "justify" an opportunistic act of aggression and exploitation.
Let us be cautious in our worship of national or political heroes.
Designing a system of education, where youngsters from different cultural, ethnic or national origins can look upon each other as "brothers and sisters of mankind".
The fragile and labile conditions of prosperity and peace.

On the sea of life, the navigational beacons never remain completely static or unchanging in their position or appearance. Even, those, which always remain far-away, mysterious and alluring, but apparently unapproachable, even those beacons will slowly change position or fade-away, as we mature and become more set in our ways. Eventually, we learn to accept with a measure of resignation the position we find ourselves in, and, later, we recognise, that the value of those bright and shining beacons did not lie as much in the fact, that we did or did not reach the particular shores they were standing on, but, that they helped us orient ourselves during our passage on the sea of life.

We find ourselves, somewhere, on this sea of human existence, as we start to become a consciously aware youngster, after a number of years of infancy and early childhood, where we remained in a vague and non-individualised state of existence. Soon, our youth will be over, and, we will be getting old. Then, it will be our turn to die. We will die, somewhere, on this vast sea, and, we may wonder, from time to time, whether or not we have seen any land at all. We may ask ourselves, whether we have reached any absolute, concrete, sure mile-stones during our existence, or, were we never, really, on solid ground at all? Was it just an illusion, when we thought to have accomplished something? How vast was this sea beyond the beacons we did pass or reach?

However, these light-houses on the sea of life gave purpose and direction to our existence, as we journeyed, cautiously, and apparently so insignificantly, over this vast expanse of living existence. The light-houses made it possible to orient ourselves; to set a course; to formulate our hopes and dreams; to engage in the numerous chores of staying alive and remaining on course. This was the real value of these light-houses, just as our goals and ideals, our idols and heroes, orient our mind and our vital energies, until we realise, somewhere during the period of middle or late maturity, that we have become a full-fledged member of society; that we have been able to participate in the processes of society, and, that we have made a small contribution after all. Yet, we laugh at the idea that anyone may consider it a "shiny beacon".

We are overwhelmed by a feeling of insignificance, whenever we look at our own efforts, but, we do not become, any longer, desperate or depressed about it, because we have already lost, a long time ago, the ambition to do "something truly significant". We have thrown-out this dream as "useless ballast", and, we felt much happier after we had done so. Now we can see, that the purpose of our existence was, really, not much more than a search for a possibility to exist, just as the purpose of all life is, in essence, a fluid search for existence possibilities.

However, such a conclusion does not satisfy us when we are still young and full of energy, because such a cynical interpretaton of our existence does not give our elan vital a goal or objective to cling to. Our evolutionary history has given us a strong, biological heritage of goal-oriented behaviour, and, this biological heritage makes itself felt in the sphere of psychological awarenesses and experiences as a strong, instinctive drive to search for goals and objectives; to give our life a sense of direction and purpose.

A beacon is a navigational aid, and, it should help us to organise our voyage through life, but, if a beacon, a goal, or an ambition, becomes an obsession, we are beginning to see a number of problems and disadvantages. While long-term goals, in particular, when they are well-motivated by a strong emotional identification with an exemplary personality, will be helpful and necessary to give us a measure of stability and self-discipline, a goal that has become an obsession, enslaves us, and it makes our behaviour far too rigid to be useful.

Rigid behaviour is self-defeating, in particular, since we are creatures that depend upon the trend to explore the possibilities given by behavioural flexibility. However, it is difficult to pin-point, with any degree of precision, where a behavioural response can be interpreted as firm and disciplined, and, where it becomes rigid and obsessive. This judgement will always be somewhat subjective, and, it is frequently only possible to judge, in a historic context, whether or not a particular behavioural response was productive. Indeed, the criteria for distinguishing between a useful discipline and a rigid obsession, are, primarily, a matter of productivity. If a particular behavioural stance leads, eventually, to the accomplishment or achievement of the goals we were after, we are hard-pressed to call these attitudes or practices rigid or obsessive, in spite of the fact, that we may have shaken our heads in doubt over the justification of the effort while it was still in progress.

Let us, therefore, be cautious in judgeing an attitude as "obsessive", but, if we see an obvious stagnation in progress due to a stubborn and inflexible approach, we are on much safer grounds to make a diagnosis of obsessive or compulsive behaviour. If the pattern has not been established for too long a period, and, if the emotional commitment in the righteousness of the chosen approach is still manageable, we may be able to steer such behaviour into more productive paths by a gentle and tactful explanation, why a particular approach does not lead to the desired results. Severe tensions and frustrations build-up, if a rigidly and obsessively applied method or appraoch leads to failure, over and over again, and, a helpful but thorough analysis and correction of the problems will make an individual very grateful, indeed, as he or she experiences to be freed from the blind alley in which one has become entangled.

A highly disciplined approach to life and the goals of achievement, may be extremely useful and satisfying to a healthy and strong adolescent vitality, but, a narrow concentration upon the goals of personal achievement impoverishes the capability to understand and communicate with other people; in particular, with those, who are not so strongly motivated and oriented upon a particular objective. A ruthless concentration upon personal achievements may accentuate egocentric attitudes to an unhealthy and anti-social level, in particular, if the society or the community in which an achiever is growing-up, does not teach, clearly and convincingly, the reasons and mechanisms of social integration and cooperation.

Not surprisingly, Socialist nations tend to favour team-sports and collective achievements over individual excellence, but, as a nation and its ideology become more secure and more mature, it is inevitable, that the extensive financial security and professional facilities, made available for the development of a personality and its talents, will, eventually, lead to highly individualistic achievements, in particular, in the sports and the arts. If a society or community can teach, clearly, the mechanisms of social togetherness, and, if it adheres, strictly, to the principles of equal opportunities for all, we see a joyous, if competitive, development of a large number of human potentials. In spite of the long periods of hard work and sustained self-discipline, the developing youngster is constantly reminded, by his dependence upon the support and the facilities of the social environment, that his or her achievement has only been possible, because countless others helped and provided the opportunities to reach the goals of artistic or athletic perfection.

Here, we see, clearly, the short-sightedness of the concepts and ideas that are still so prevalent in the "free-enterprise" societies, because, there, competitive excellence is stimulated in the belief, that the attitudes of competitiveness, toughness and discipline, will, somehow, benefit society, without any recognition of the possible disastrous effects of a rigorously egocentric attitude. As a result, we see, that the achievers start to consider it as their "right" to be helped and supported all along their path of ambitious development, and, once they have reached their goals, they do not hesitate to use their achievements as a "marketable commodity", in an effort to accumulate, quickly, a measure of financial security, affluence and independence. No wonder, that the achievers become quickly a defensive and exclusive elite, always afraid of losing their hard-won position of privilege and prestige, and, we see little of the more joyous, open and trustful attitudes that are usually associated with the achievers in the Socialist societies.

Certainly, all hard-working achievers, even, in the Socialist societies, are subjected to the temptation to translate their achievements into a personal or financial gain, as well as a life of luxury and privilege, and, undoubtedly, this is the primary reason, why a number of artistic and athletic achievers of the Socialist societies "defect" to the West. I am sure, that it is not because of the superior atmosphere or ideology they find in the West, but, it is difficult to say, bluntly, that these achievers have defected "for the money". Besides, this is not what the fans want to hear, and, in a land where commercial enterprises and advertising techniques rule supreme, people learn, quickly, to put a more palatable label on their motivations; such as, e.g., "a greater degree of artistic and personal freedom".

Sure, there is a greater degree of artistic and personal freedom in a country without a strong ideology or system of social cohesion, but, unfortunately, people understand, rarely, that it is logical to expect a measure of restriction on personal gains and individualised artistic behaviour, if the society provides the facilities and opportunities for artistic and athletic development to everyone. It would not be fair, and, it would be contrary to the Socialist Ideals, if an artist or athlete, who has obtained a great deal of fame and publicity on the basis of very hard work and significant achievements, would want to function, solely, for his own benefit; living and working in an environment that does not require a contribution to society over and beyond the obligatory contribution of paying taxes.

The temptation to revert to egocentric attitudes and postures is always there, whenever the opportunities present themselves; but, let us not react with anger or despair at such "reactionary" or "counter-revolutionary" attitudes, because they are an inalienable part of our biological heritage. We can not hope to suppress these tendencies by anger and scorn. We can only help each other to overcome these temptations by a clear understanding of the requirements of social togetherness, as well as the need to curb and discipline ourselves, and to control our egocentric instincts and desires.

Indeed, the attitudes of identifying with our idols or heroes, of wanting to become like them, as well as our persistent, even, exclusive concentration upon these goals, are essentially egocentric in nature. Here, we see the reason, why society, or, at least, the teachers, the elders, the educators and the responsible citizens of a community, are so anxious to establish a climate, where the youngster will identify with the heroes of the community; those who founded society, led their people into liberty, freed them from bondage, or, gave their best efforts, or, even, their lives for a Cause that did not benefit them personally.

However, the people who can identify with a political hero may be small in number. The political or patriotic hero of the society, who is regarded as a liberator of its people and a founder of a nation, may be seen as a traitor by the society he and his followers broke-away from. The hero who made his nation great, proud and prosperous, may be the scourge and the arch-villain of another social environment, which was conquered, pilfered, or put into bondage by the founder of a new nation. The hero for one, is, then, an enemy for someone else, and, we see, therefore, that we have to be very careful in accepting, blindly and without questioning, the historical and political heroes of our social environment.

Let us ask the question, how the hero got to be a hero, and, let us distinguish, carefully, between the hero, who defended his people in a courageous and legitimate manner against an aggressor, and, the hero, who got his name and fame by being an aggressor himself, sweeping his followers into a mood of opportunistic belligerence under the pretext of revenging or correcting some sort of "injustice". It is so easy to make people believe, that they are committing their aggression as a legitimate act of "self-defense". It is so easy to "justify" an act of aggression and exploitation, whenever the opportunity presents itself. There is always a strong temptation to make use of such an opportunity for gain.

Worshipping national or political heroes of the past, is, therefore, a dubious activity, which will have to be scrutinised and criticised carefully in the educational programs of the future, but, we have not reached this stage of scrutiny and insight as yet. We have not reached the stage, where we are designing a system of education which will make youngsters from different cultural, ethnic and national origins look upon each other as "brothers of mankind". No, the ravages of war, the savage acts of killing and destruction, the senselessness of an all-out violent confrontation, are still too easily forgotten. Man's ability and tenacity to build-up from scratch, to repopulate devastated areas, to forget those who have been killed, is still so strong, that, within a few short generations, most of the traces of the previous war, as well as most of the memories have faded, sufficiently, to allow the living generations to become obsessed, once again, with their bellicose instincts.

Time and again, we see, how fragile and labile the situation of prosperity and peace really is. No sooner has a level of well-being been reached, or the winds of the next war are starting to blow. One would think, that people could finally learn to avoid the suffering and hardships of settling a conflict by violent means, but, then, we have to realise, that this behaviour is ancient and fundamental to all living systems, and, we know, now, that these behaviour-patterns are so much older, and more clearly etched into our genetic code, compared to the rational approach of compromise and cooperation.

We should not be surprised, therefore, to see this recurrent and seemingly irrepressible tendency to drift into a situation of violent conflict. However, soon, such a drift may be the last time that man is able to engage in an all-out confict. Soon, the regenerative capablities of mankind and its ecological niche may have been exhausted and damaged beyond the point of recovery.

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Chapter 5

Content

The lability and transience of culturally encoded instructions constitutes, probably, an ultimately fatal flaw in the evolutionary heritage of the human species.
A different problem compared to over-specialisation and the loss of adaptability.
No other species is so restless, violent and destructive, after it has reached a point of evolutionary success.
A gifted, natural leader may become a "founding father", when the time for expansion and rapid developments is ripe.
Qualities of a natural leader.
The problem associated with a peaceful and orderly leadership succession.
The emergence of a political martyr-hero.
Mechanisms of polarisation.
Halting insane, all-out conflicts by the imposition of a judicial or negotiated settlement.
The role of world public opinion in the future.
Religious and political heroes are closely related.
Mechanisms of entrapment.
Old ways die hard; the habit of settling a conflict by violent means.
It is so difficult to listen to a detested opinion.
Consequences of a fervent commitment to a revolutionary struggle.
The mechanisms of equalisation have to take place within the framework of explicit and detailed Constitutional Guidelines.

The inability to learn in a more permanent manner, the lability and transience of culturally encoded instructions, as well as the utter reliance by the human being on this cultural code for survival, constitutes the essential, and, probably, ultimately fatal flaw in the evolutionary design of the human species. We have, in essence, adequate flexibility to adapt to, or make use of, fluctuating circumstances, and, the problem is not the remarkable degree of over-specialisation and loss of adaptability, which is the reason for the extinction of so many species'. On the contrary, the human species is in danger of losing its viability because of an essential element of instability in guidance-patterns, which is characterised by the inability of being satisfied with a condition of simple well-being.

What other species is always destroying, by savage warfare and criminal stupidity, the possibilities of existence it has created for itself? Here, we see a species, eminently capable of tapping resources and creating a favourable environment for survival from conditions that were nearly completely inaccessible to other species'. No other species has developed the same capabilities to manipulate its environment so brilliantly, that its members can survive, for a while, at least, the hostile surroundings of space, or, on the surface of a lifeless planet, but, at the same time, no other species is so restless, so violent, and so destructive, after it has reached a point of easy and comfortable existence.

While other species' will contently relax and go to sleep, if they have found a congenial environment, and, after they have satisfied their basic physiological needs, the human being gets restless, bored and belligerent, if he has to stay, for any length of time, in an environment with an optimum equilibrium of existential conditions.

This is an aside, however, and, we should not continue to speculate, here, on a possible fatal flaw in the evolutionary development of the human species. Let us accept, that, at some time in the future, the human species will join the ranks of those species', which have become extinct, and, it is somewhat irrelevant to speculate, whether or not man's extinction will be a quiet, natural affair, as other species' go, without a whimper or a fuss; whether or not man's demise will come as the result of a gigantic catastrophe of his own making.

Let us go back to the roles and functions of our heroes, and, let us continue to outline a number of differences between historical or political heroes on the one hand, and, those in the arts, sports or sciences, on the other. A political leader, who happens to live and excercise leadership in a small community that is poised to break-through into becoming a powerful and vibrant social entity, will, almost automaticaly, become a "founding father", and, a sensitive and gifted leader will surely sense, at least, intuitively, the potentials that are opening-up for "his society". These are, therefore, exciting and eventfull times, and, it is certainly possible, for many people, to become completely absorbed by the events that are taking place. We see, then, attitudes of utter dedication, very hard work, a clever sensitivity for any opportunity to expand, but, we see, also, a ruthless determination to succeed, to stifle dissent, and, to believe in a simple but absolute truth and unquestioned judgement about what is right and wrong.

The gifts of natural leadership do not require a long road of highly disciplined training, such as is necessary to acquire a difficult skill or a dazzling expertise. In a way, natural leaders are much more like average people, with a rather balanced but un-exceptional range of skills, except, perhaps, the skills of persuasion, together with the accurate perception of practical political realities and possibilities.

Certainly, natural leaders are highly courageous people, who have a keen perception about situations of injustice. A natural leader, and, in particular, a revolutionary leader, will focus upon the task of leading a community out of bondage and oppression. If the society is reasonably flexible and well developed, there will be opportunities to translate this sense of anger and injustice into a political career, where the natural leader seeks to correct the perceived injustices by peaceful political means; by increasing the representation of his people and the region he comes from; by fighting, patiently, but persistently, for legislation that will give a fairer distribution of privileges and burdens to the peoples he represents, as well as throughout the nation as a whole.

However, even, in societies, where such peaceful mechanisms for change do exist, the process is, often, painfully slow, and the professed democratic principles are, frequently, violated by secretive power-groups, which have much more influence on the democratically elected leadership than is warranted under a scrupulously adhered-to democratic contract of essential equality, where each member of society has an equal right and power to influence the political events in his or her society. If the society is democratic in name only, and, if it is ruled, in essence, by a small, powerful elite, the road towards an open rebellion or revolution is becoming more likely all the time, and, we all can verify these mechanisms by looking at our contemporary societies, as well as the extensive documentation of historical events.

There is always a rebellion or uprising going-on, somewhere, in the world, and, there are always acts of violence and terrorism being carried-out, indicating the presence of a long-standing resentment and frustration about neglected or uncorrected situations of injustice.

Naturally gifted leaders emerge as spokesmen and -women for their society, championing its rights, and, they are often forced to fight a war, and, sometimes, they have to die for the Cause they became so much a part of. Here, we see the political martyr-hero, who will become a powerful source of inspiration and hope, when his or her admiring followers contemplate the heroic self-less and courageous activities of the leader, who, eventually, gave his or her life for the liberation of an oppressed people.

Unfortunately, the judgement of right and wrong is not always easy, when the situation is analysed from a more distant and objective point of view. As an outsider, we can always see, that, both sides contribute to a conflict-situation, even, if we can agree with an oppressed segment of the population that their Cause is just. We see, that opportunities for compromise and peaceful settlement are often squandered on both sides; by an entrenched elite, as well as by a confident, impatient, revolutionary elite.

Once the road towards armed conflict has been chosen, it is so difficult to stop the fighting and reach a settlement by negotiation, because the killings and atrocities, the victims falling on both sides of the conflict, harden the attitudes of the survivors to a stubborn determination to fight on. Any compromise becomes, then, an act of treason towards their martyrs and heroes. In particular, if one side senses that it can win, the willingness to compromise and cut-short the fighting, is not there, but, people rarely realise, how this desire to accomplish an all-out victory only induces the weaker side to a desperate last stance, increasing the costs in atrocities and casualties to unbelievable, unimaginable and largely unnecessary levels.

In a world that is becoming increasingly inter-dependent, an ever more powerful role exists for the opinions and attitudes of the ordinary, sane, working people from all over the world. There is an increasing possibility to halt such insane all-out conflicts by the imposition of a judicial or negotiated settlement. If world public opinion would be more coherent, and, if our leaders could get rid of the hypocritical idea that they should not interfere in each other's affairs, (which they do anyway), we would not see those smouldering but deadly conflicts, where killings and reprisals feed the flames of hatred, and lawless bands of armed soldiers or rebels fight each other and take their revenge on the unarmed civilian population. We still sit-back and "do nothing", because it does not affect us personally, and, our leaders keep saying, that they can and should not interfere in the affairs of another country. In the mean time, the campaign of terror, massacres, torture and destruction goes-on in a number of regions, all over the world, and, we are reminded about these events, only occasionally; in a news-flash, or a documentory, sandwiched between the commercials of culinary foods and gleaming new cars.

True, these isolated conflicts do not concern us, because they do not affect us. These conflicts do not interfere with world-trade or the balance of power, and, there is little risk of a widening of the conflict. As long as we are not threatened by the likelyhood of a nuclear conflict, or the disastrous pollution of unbridled industrial activities or biological warfare, we care little, really, about what happens to the poor people in under-developed countries, where law and order seems to depend on the force of the gun, regardless, which side is in power.

The political hero, as well as the religious hero, is, often, a cause for hardened attitudes, fanatic beliefs, as well as an unnecessary intensification of the processes of suffering and deprivation. The religious and political heroes are frequently closely related, because, nearly all revolutionary activities, certainly, those in the past, occurred as the result of strong beliefs and rigid attitudes, which were, and still are, supported by a simple but determined religious Faith.

Often, soldiers pray and shoot at the same time. They kill for the glory of their God, but, more likely, their simple faith and their prayers to God, while fighting or being on the run, reflect the strong and irreversible commitment to a political choice, which they can no longer change. They have become entrapped in the side they have chosen to belong to, and, if they do not fight, they are going to be killed, either, by an enemy soldier who will shoot first, or, by their own comrades, who will consider them to be traitors and cowards. There is no room anymore for a choice. All they can do is to make the best of it. All they can do is try to survive any way they know how, and, this means, that they have to continue fighting with their enemies, while praying for better times to come.

Few revolutionaries, who are defending with their lives a believed-in Cause, realise, how futile and wasteful their struggles are, when seen in a much larger, historical perspective. Even, if they win their just Cause and accomplish the liberation of their peoples, after a brief period of well-being, the people will have to go back to struggle for their survival, to rebuild their country and face the disappointments of human frailties.

True, the hated oppressors have been eliminated. The lands can now be distributed amongst the workers and peasants, but, the work still has to be done, and, it does not take long for people to come to the conclusion, that the struggle has just begun; that the end of the revolution did not bring them a paradise on earth; that the revolution did not even bring an end to strife, because, as soon as the common enemy had been defeated, the weary alliance between brothers in arms, fell-apart. New incidences of strife erupted as friction points came to the fore, and, because the victorious revolutionaries settled disputes with the force of the gun for such a long time, they quickly fell-back into their old habits and started to fight and kill each other.

Old ways die hard, and, it is not surprising to see, that a successful revolution does not lead easily to democratic rule. The revolutionaries who fought and gave their lives for the struggle of liberation, automatically assume all the powers, and, they naturally assume, that their concepts and ideas, their ideals and hopes, which grew into immutable doctrines of faith during the long and painful struggle, are absolute truths, which can not be denied or questioned. As a result, democracy has no chance, because a cool, reasoned, intellectual debate is only possible, after the scars and the passions of the armed struggle have faded to some extent.

It is logical, therefore, that the winning side, even, if it professes to represent the people, and, even, if it is committed to a democratic form of government, tends to become a dictatorship of a single political Party or a revolutionary elite, and, it is logical, that critics and opponents of such a doctrinary approach to the matters of government, raise feelings of suspicion and hatred. It is so diffcult to feel and behave, truly, as democrats, where we listen patiently to each other's ideas and criticisms. As soon as a nation has become so polarised, that the factions have taken-up arms against each other, the possibility for a fruitful dialogue has been lost, and it is not automatically regained, if a "people's Party" is victorious in a Civil War or the power-struggle that always follows such an irreversible polarisation.

Indeed, it is difficult for a soldier, or a revolutionary who has fought hard, lived for years in harsh and deprived conditions, to share his power equally with those who laid low during the conflict, and, who escaped with relatively little hardship or commitment to the revolutionary Cause. A conflict that is solved by a power-struggle, always leads to another dictatorship, paving the way again for another power-struggle in the near future, unless the victorious side has a far-sighted social philosophy, which is instrumental in truly equalising the opportunities and living standards for everyone, and not just for a privileged, revolutionary or Party-elite.

A successful revolutionary over-throw of a dictatorship can only break the vicious cycle of future armed power-struggles, if it implements a policy, where, gradually, the benefits, priviliges and burdens of belonging to society, are spread fairly and evenly over all people, including an equal say in the election of political leaders. However, as we have discussed before, this can only lead to a stable society, if the equalisation processes are taking place within the framework of explicit, extensive and detailed Constitutional Guidelines, which have been shaped in an open debate by the entire population.

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Chapter 6

Content

A cultural hero emphasises a specific skill, rather than the existential security of a particular group.
A variety of examples.
The gifted artist knows, intuitively, how to concentrate on the essential features that can be recognised by many different peoples.
A good philosopher should be able to accomplish the same universality of appeal in his thought-patterns.
The political or religious hero needs the "artistic hero" to interpret the meaning of his or her existence.
Learning to analyse and understand the influences we are exposed to.
A review of hierarchical relationships.
The increasingly "cultural" qualities of natural leadership in a sophisticated, small community.
A reliance upon "input".
A review of leadership developments.
The jet-liner that hit a bridge during a snow-storm.
Heroism is, in essence, an act of sublime, natural leadership.
The existence of many nameless heroes.
A sense of uselessness and waste, when reflecting upon the heroic efforts of some people to preserve the moral values of the society they believe in.
Most soldiers, who gave their lives for their country, would turn-over in their graves, if they could see what happened to the society they fought and died for.
The deaths of our fighting heroes made room for those, who managed to survive the upheavals of war.

The one essential difference between a cultural hero and a political or religious hero, is the fact, that, the cultural hero emphasises a particular skill, rather than the existential security of a particular group. A cultural, sport's or artistic hero appeals, at least, to some extent, to qualities and judgements that are shared amongst all peoples, regardless of the specifics of a particular culture. The beauty of a perfectly executed program of figure-skating appeals to many cultures and nationalities, because we admire, here, abilities and aesthetic values that transcend the boundaries of a specific cultural code or environment.

Sound and images have the advantage that they are easily spread over a wide cultural spectrum, more so than artistic expressions that make use of a language. Certainly, there are many skilled translators, who can overcome these difficulties to some extent, and, even, in the field of serious music, we see, that, most compositions require the services of a "professional translator", or interpreter, before we can enjoy and examine the creations of gifted composers. A gifted story-teller will be interesting to many different peoples, even, if they speak a variety of languages, because the characters and events, the behaviour and inter-actions, the thoughts, moods, feelings and motivations of the people participating in a story, are often very similar, from culture to culture, as well as from one generation to the next.

In comedy, for example, we see, that, many traits, such as pomposity, dishonesty, snobism or petty jealousies can be portrayed as a caricature that is recognised by many different cultures, in spite of the fact, that the inter-actions of a personality with the environment always take place in a specific locale. The truly universal artist knows, intuitively, how to concentrate on the essential features that are at stake, and, these features can be recognised by people in many different parts of the world. The same should apply to a good and serious portrayal of a tragic event, where the follies of human beings, as well as the disastrous consequences of their behaviour, are portrayed in such a way, that many people can be moved by the story, even, if they have to read a novel, or hear a play, in a translation.

A good philosopher should be able to accomplish the same universality of appeal, in spite of the fact, that he will, necessarily, have to write-down his thoughts and ideas in a specific language. By concentrating on the general aspects of human existence and behaviour, as well as the common problems of individual and collective existence, he should be able to formulate his ideas in such a way, that they are nearly equally relevant to people in many different parts of the world, and, hopefully, his thoughts and ideas will remain relevant for a number of generations as well. Therefore, I believe, that future generations will find the cultural, artistic, scientific or sports heroes of the past more relevant than the political, revolutionary or religious heroes, because their importance depends, so much, on local events, as well as localised existential needs and concerns.

Nevertheless, the individual, who becomes a dedicated political or religious leader, or, the revolutionary, who takes-up arms to challenge the established elite of his society, are still enormously important heroic symbols for our times, because they determine, to a large extent, the course of history. These are the people who determine the living conditions and fate for millions of people, and, this fate may be disastrous, but, it may also be highly beneficial and "life-giving".

It is interesting to note, here, as a sideline, that the political or religious hero needs, as a rule, a cultural or artistic "hero" to interpret his or her meaning in such a way, that people, who are not directly involved in the specific conditions of their work or existence, can still identify with a number of political leaders or religous heroes.

Everywhere we look, we see, that, nearly all the poples are "followers", and, they are being led by political, military or religious leaders, who have the power, and the persuasiveness, to send their people into the battlefields. It is important, therefore, that we get a good grasp over these phenomena, and, it is important, that we understand, clearly, what makes these political, military or revolutionary leaders tick. What makes them so powerful and persuasive? How do they think, and, why do they behave the way they do? Are we will-less victims in their hands, or, do we "create", collectively, these leaders and heroes, because we need people we can look-up to, believe-in, take orders from, and fight for?

We have to go back, once again, to the principles that lie behind the phenomenon of hierarchical positioning. As we have discussed so many times before, in a hierarchical order of individuals on their way to form a natural social unit, the territories of the individual members fuse, and the stronger, more dominant members assume a leadership role. This leadership role is characterised by a dominance over the other members, who submit their will to the leaders. This means, that, in a conflict-situation, the dominant member gets his way, while a lower ranking individual retreats from the conflict-situation. However, disputes and fights between members tend to be limited, because they tend to become "test-fights". These are skirmishes to see who is the strongest, but, these contests do not progress to an all-out fight, where the loser is killed or driven-off the territory all-together.

We have also discussed, why the leaders of a small group of hierarchically stratified members tend to brake-up serious fights that are getting out of hand. A serious fight tends to weaken the group as a whole, and, since the leaders have assumed, instinctively, a measure of responsibility, or "ownership", over the group and the territory as a whole, they will halt a serious fight between members, and, they are likely to "impose" a solution.

Natural leaders also assume, automatically, the responsibility to lead the defense of their territory against intruders and external threats, and, these leaders begin to play a more important role in all communal activities. We see a variety of leadership tasks arise, not only, in the realm of the hunt, but, also, in the organisation of all activities that have an aspect of communal interest. For example, the tasks of hunting, gathering edibles, looking for shelter, the sharing of foods with the weaker members of the group, and, much later, the communal sharing of the events and experiences of the day by acts of mimicry or the imitation of an event, all these activities become leadership functions, and, the dominant members of a small social unit become, therefore, valuable and versatile members of the community.

We have elaborated before, on several occasions, the speculative imagery that lies behind the concepts of a conscious awareness. We have discussed the re-stimulation of memory-traces into a focus of awareness with the help of symbolic representations, such as an act of mimicry, stylised gestures or pictures, drawn into the sand or on the bark of a tree, and, eventually, the quick flow of symbolic representations with the help of vocal sound-symbols.

The point we want to emphasise, here, is the increasing role of the leadership of a small community, which extends from the functions of defense, the organisation of the hunt, and the sharing of the spoils, to the elaboration of symbolic representations and belief structures. This trend makes it clear, why nearly all human beings need "an input" from their leaders in order to formulate an adequate behavioural response. As we have seen, human youngsters require a long period of learning, before they are able to function as a full-fledged member of the society, and, even, if they find, eventually, an important and hierarchically advanced position, they still require an "input" or guidance.

We have discussed, before, that, even, the most dominant individuals, who, eventually, become the undisputed leaders of their group, still are very much aware of the fact, that there are more powerful forces around them, and, we have discussed, how the pantheon of spirits and super-natural forces, is a reflection of the belief, that, human beings, including the leaders, form only a small step in the order of natural powers which man experiences to exist all around him. In other words; the spiritual world of forces in human belief structures takes the isolation and loneliness out of a position of leadership, because the members, including the leaders of a group, consider themselves, only, as a small part of a much larger hierarchial order.

We have also seen, that, many people become a leader in one particular aspect or another, in particular, after the social grouping has become much larger and much more complex, with a great deal of individual differentiation or specialisation in function. Every professional, every skilled worker, and, every responsible citizen may be called-upon to function as a leader at one time or another. Sometimes, the leadership function is quite well organised and specifically prepared, such as a teaching position in school or a university. At other times, circumstances throw a small group of people together into an unusual and often precarious situation, such as an accident.

Suddenly, we may see great leadership qualities arise in people, who never before have considered themselves to be leaders. Yet, almost instinctively, these people are able to give guidance, comfort, help or advise to those, who are still reeling from the shock of a sudden catastrophic series of events. Not only, do we see true leadership emerge as a quality of care and concern for the weaker members of the group, but, we may even see unsuspected attitudes of altruism, where help is given in spite of the grave dangers to personal existence when doing so.

For example, just recently, a jet-liner hit a bridge on take-off and crashed into an ice-covered river during a snow-storm. Most of the plane plunged through the ice taking the occupants to their death, persumably by drowning, and, let us hope, that most of them were unconscious from the impact. However, a small number of people were clinging to a tail section which had broken-off and was still afloat. Since it happened close to the capital of a major nation, rescue attempts were started immediately, and, a helicopter flew to the scene of the accident with a line and a life-ring attached to it. The helicopter pilot reported later, that, on two occasions, an unknown man passed the ring to someone else and helped to fasten it, refusing to be rescued himself; on the third trip, this individual had disappeared; presumably, he was overcome by the ice-cold water, lost his grip and was swept under the ice.

No-one knows this man's name. At least, no name has come forth as yet, and his name is not really important. What is important, is to understand, that, unusual or catastrophic circumstances may suddenly bring-forth a sort of heroism that appeals to us all, regardless of creed, belief or political opinion, as we see an individual risking and sometimes sacrificing his life in order to help others. If we ask ourselves, whether or not the man knew that this act of chivalry was going to cost him his life, we will never know the answer. We can only speculate, that he reacted impulsively and intuitively, and, that the shock of the impact and the numbing cold, clouded his judgement. He probably did not realise, how quickly he would lose his grip and his consciousness. Perhaps, the man knew very well, that he was going to die, and, perhaps, he welcomed it. Maybe his wife or his family had perished in the crash. Whatever went through his mind will never be known, because the man never had a chance to relive his experiences and tell others about them.

The point we want to emphasise, here, is the concept, that such an act of heroism is, in essence, an act of sublime, natural leadership, where, suddenly, our protective and guiding instincts are motivated into action because of a set of catastrophic circumstances. In a more chronic situation of stress, it becomes more difficult to maintain such an attitude of helpful, self-sacrificing guidance, as we have more time to register and think about the warning signals we are receiving. These signals make it clear to us, what the eventual outcome of our attitudes and actions is going to be. Yet, many times, during the sress of a war, we see, that it was possible for people to react with a sublime and inspiring attitude of leadership; an attitude and a behaviour that was completely geared to the well-being of a small group, and, which often resulted in the sacrifice of one's life.

Many nameless or nearly entirely forgotten heroes have died, almost anonymously, and, most of us, living later, can not help, but feel a sense of uselessness and waste, if we think about the heroic efforts of some people to preserve the values and the morals of the society they believed-in. What has happened to this same society? I am convinced, that, most soldiers, who gave their lives for their country, would be horrified, and, they would turn-over in their graves with a sense of deep despair, if they could see, what happened to the society they defended so valiantly. How many people still remember them, or, remember the values they fought and died for?

The decay of a society, which had been "saved" by the self-sacrificing efforts of its believing and courageus citizens, must be one of the saddest experiences a human being can witness, and, perhaps, it is just as well, that the war-dead, as well as all those who sacrificed their lives for one cause or another, never knew, how short-lived, how transient, how relative this "Great Cause" turned-out to be. Perhaps, even more sad, and, certainly more cynical is the notion, that the real contribution made by those who lost their lives for their country, their beliefs, or their convictions, lies in the room they made for others to fill their positions, and, perhaps, in the role they played as a shining martyr-hero; for a few youngsters, who happened to learn about the patriotic deeds and the courageous deaths of these heroes.

Yet, in an eco-system, where someone's death is someone else's opportunity to live, we can not deny the basic truth, that the death of our fighting heroes made room for, and provided opportunities to, those, who, by lucky accident or clever design, managed to survive the upheavals of war-fare.

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Chapter 7

Content

Leadership is a function for the living members of society, and the act of hero-worship functions as a beacon of hope and guidance for those, who are struggling to survive or grow-up.
A smooth transition from being formed, to becoming a model for others.
Let us do our work as well as we can.
The art of capturing the imagination of students.
A defective understanding is the most serious handicap for a teacher.
Judging the teaching-experience as a burden and a waste of time.
There is a need to re-evaluate, continuously, the content and form of the educational program.
The wide-ranging aspects of relevance.
It is not easy to make our youngsters select their exemplary models from a repertoir we have consciously and deliberately put before them.
Problems for chaotic, fragmented and crime-ridden societies.
Commercial interests have learned to manipulate the taste and identification mechanisms of a large audience.
A clever, pragmatic "feel" for whatever will attract attention.
The power of money and a firm control over the mass-media.
A familiar lament.
A reminder, that society is a living structure with a limited life-span.
We still adhere, too much, to the rather primitive mechanisms of hero-worship.

Leadership is a function for the living members of society, and the act of hero-worship functions as a beacon of hope, steadfastness and guidance for those, who are engaged in a serious struggle for survival, or, who are still in the process of growing-up. We see, clearly, that the requirements of contemporary leadership are the same as the qualities of those, whose memory and achievements we enshrine in an attitude of reverence and worship. We all need these beacons to guide us through life, and, to transform us into valuable, contributing members of society. We can not fully grow-up without having experienced the beneficial leadership of someone, whom we admired or looked-up to.

Interestingly, the elements of behaviour that make us contribute to society and become a leader or model of exemplary behaviour ourselves, flow naturally from the psychological mechanisms that make us susceptible to the leadership of an inspiring example. In this mechanism of the inspiring example, we see the most ancient form of "cultural transmission", as we have discussed. After we have "become" what we want to be, and, after have become "filled" with the values and virtues of our leaders and heroes, we develop a strong character and a convincing personality, because, now, we have something to say, and, as we feel ourselves ripen into an articulate personality, we may become an inspiration for others. Once we have accomplished something, there will be some people who are beginning to see some value in our thoughts and ideas, our attitudes and achievements, our artistic, scientific or athletic efforts.

Yet, let us not search, anxiously, for such signs of "being appreciated". Let us not constantly scan the horizon to see, whether or not we have become a leader, a hero, a popular personality, or well-known public figure or teacher. Let us do our work as well as we can. Let us articulate our thoughts and ideas as carefully as possible, and, if it turns-out to be difficult to find someone who appreciates our work, and, who likes to think about it or is willing to make an effort to become familiar with it....well, so what? Perhaps, later, it will be looked at with more interest, but, of course, it could still be rejected. It is always possible that the main-stream of human thought or artistic endeavour will not concur, to any significant extent, with the thoughts of a lonely philosopher or searching artist, but, then, what does it really matter? The only thing that matters, is to make a serious and honest effort to think and write as clear, as honestly, and as accurately, as possible, or, to do a job or discharge a responsibility, to the best of one's abilities.

As long as our work and efforts reflect the best we have to give, we can rest in peace, and, it does not really matter, whether or not we will ever be aware of any significant response. It would be nice of course. We are all human enough to enjoy a measure of success and recognition, but, is this not like eating a piece of chocolate? It is nice to have, but, it can hardly be considered an essential part of our sustenance. The main point we should keep in mind, here, is the fact, that an honest effort to be good in our work, to adhere to attitudes that are beneficial to others, and, to be a loyal member of the community, will always be appreciated, even, if this appreciation takes place primarily subconsciously, and, even, if the contribution is taken for granted.

After this personal aside, we should return to consider the transition that takes place, when we gradually slide from being a pupil, a student, a learner or follower, to a position, where we have to give, to lead, to show initiative, and shoulder a measure of responsibility. This transition is often so gradual and so imperceptible, that we are hardly aware of the fact, that we have become a full-fledged, functioning member of society, and, that we are beginning to function as an example for others. Often, we remain a student or a pupil, learning from our teachers and experiences, while we have already become teachers ourselves, and, we are then truly a link in this necessary chain to transfer the cultural core of relevant information and skills from one generation to another. However, as a teacher, we do not capture easily the imagination of our pupils, and, we do not become quickly an object of admiration and imitation.

Indeed, in the concept of "capturing the imagination", we see, not only, the crux of hero-worship, but, also, the process of inspired teaching. If we can make the subject we teach, relevant and interesting for the pupils, it will be much easier to transfer with enthousiasm the knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and values of our culture. Too often, the subject we teach is dull, because we, as teachers, have never been "fired" by our teachers, and, we never felt a true surge of enthousiasm, nor, did we develop a broad insight into the subject-matter we have to transmit to the younger generations.

If we understand only partially, and, perhaps, defectively, what we are supposed to teach to others, how can we put our heart and soul into it? How can we be an inspiring teacher, if our imagination has not been fired by an enthousiasm for the significance of the knowledge and insights of our profession? How can we field the many questions and doubts which perceptive pupils may throw at us? If we are caught in the attitude that we have to teach because, somehow, it has become our profession and duty to do so, we can only transmit, mechanically, a somewhat incoherent picture of the subjects we have to teach.

If we, as pupils, encounter such an uninspiring, defective teacher, we judge rather harshly, if intuitively, and, we make life difficult for such an unfortunate teacher. We do not quite know, what is wrong with the teaching, or the personality of the teacher, but, we feel, intuitively, that there is something wrong, and, we turn-away in disgust, because we feel the teaching experience to be a burden and a waste of time. Later, we realise, that a teacher, who never really understood the fundamental meaning and importance of his subject or the art of teaching, and, who never really overcame his or her handicaps and short-comings, can not be blamed entirely for the defective product he or she is delivering.

Many of the subjects we have to learn, require a measure of will-power and self-discipline, because they do not immediately appeal to our emotions and interests, and, they may not co-incide with the areas of knowledge we are somewhat familiar with, yet, such fields may be of importance, later, and, often, we are expected to learn these fields, whether we like them or not.

Therefore, even, the most gifted teachers may not be able to create a genuine experience of recognition or discovery in a pupil, who has to be constantly prodded to keep his or her attention upon the subject, and, if such is the case with a fairly large number of pupils, then, we should re-examine the way a curriculum has been put-together. Perhaps, such an important subject should be taught later, or, it should be taught differently, so that it corresponds more with the natural phase of development of the students, or, perhaps, the background knowledge upon which the teaching of a subject is based, is not there, and, the pupils have difficulties understanding what is being taught, because they fail to make the necessary connections in their minds.

There is a continuous need to re-evaluate the content of the educational program which we teach in our societies, and, as we have discussed more extensively on previous occasions, we can only design a truly comprehensive and meaningful curriculum, after we have agreed amongst ourselves about the basic characteristics of our society, the nature of human existence, as well as the requirements for a proper cultural transfer. As long as we have no clear ideas about the structure and function of the human personality, and, as long as we do not really know, what the role and function is of the social environment we live in, we can not expect to understand the need for a viable cultural code, nor, do we have any idea, what the contents of such a viable cultural code should look like.

However, after this educational aside, we should return to the more basic learning mechanisms we have chosen as the subject of this essay. We hope to have made it clear, that, indeed, the mechanisms of learning by imitation, and by choosing our heroes, are, in essence, similar. These mechanisms of learning avoid the problems of relevance, which are so prominent, if we look at the more intellectual methods of transferring concepts and ideas from teacher to pupil, because the process of "latching onto" our heroes, as well as the attitudes of admiration and worship, ensure, that we are really interested in the models of our choice and their accomplishments.

However, we, as adult educators in a society, or, as leaders who are concerned about the quality of the cultural transfer-mechanisms to our impressionable youngsters, have much less control over these mechanisms, and, it requires, indeed, an extensive and well-executed educational program, if we want to make sure, that our youngsters find their exemplary models from a repertoir we have consciously and deliberately put before them.

When we say, that certain people or events may capture the imagination of our young people who are searching for models to imitate, we recognise, that, a great deal of "mental creation" is taking place in the minds of these youngsters, and, we are then back to the concept, that, by and large, people, including young people, "create" their heroes according to their psychological and social needs, providing, thereby, a suitable pathway for the energy-flow of their elan vital.

Certainly, the personality, as well as the achievements of the hero are "objective facts", in the sense, that a number of people can agree about the essential features of the personality or the achievements of a specific individual, in spite of the fact, that, those, who have not chosen these exemplary people as a model, may give less prominence to their virtues and are better able to see the weaknesses or failures of those, who function as a hero-image.

Almost any personality, or, almost anything man does or has made, may become an example for people to imitate. Most of us are horrified to see, that, criminal attitudes and achievements may, on occasion, function as a model for young people, in particular, if they are growing-up in a crime-ridden milieu or atmosphere. However, these mechanisms are logical, if we acknowledge, that there is, often, an almost complete reversal of the traditional values in such a social environment. Certainly, these are exceptional circumstances, and, perhaps, it is only possible to find examples of such a reversal in morality in the large, chaotic and decaying affluent societies, where relatively large segments of society are allowed, or compelled, to exist in conditions of poverty and deprivation, fostering criminal attitudes with a profound sense of alienation towards the rest of society.

If we concentrate on the more conventional and socially more acceptable heroes of our times, we see, that, at least, initially, the qualities of dedication and perseverance, skill and directness of expression, honesty and clarity of intentions, are awarded with recognition by a significant number of people, and, for some people who have developed an extra-ordinary affinity for a particular expression or achievement, these individuals and their accomplishments start to function as a glamorous beacon, guiding them in their development, while giving meaning to their existence.

However, with the development of the mass-media and the commercial control over these mass-media in most of the affluent societies, we see, that, commercial interests can manipulate quite successfully the taste, and, even, the hero-worship of a large audience. Certainly, it is not possible to force upon an audience something it does not like at all, but, commercial pressures may artificially accentuate the exposure of certain personalities over others, and, a mere increase in exposure has a momentum all its own, which is often accepted, without scrutiny, as a sign of true popularity.

What educators and teachers were never able to do very successfully, (nl. to lead the attention and interest of the pupils to a subject of the teacher's choice), has been accomplished remarkably well by the advertising industry. This industry has developed a clever, pragmatic "feel" for whatever will attract attention, and, this industry has been able to couple a large number of existential and emotional stimuli with the product of a well-paying sponsor.

We do not want to slip into another aside which is close to the center of my concerns; the pernicious influence of commercial pressures and interests upon the taste, attitudes and cultural code of a social environment. We want to point-out, that the normal, selective mechanisms, high-lighting an admirable personality, an outstanding achievement or success, tend to become grossly distorted by the ability to influence and steer the attention and interests of the masses by the power of money, as well as a firm control over the mass-media.

I have lamented these trends before, just as I have expressed my fears and my deep concerns about any democratic experiment that is not guided by a valid and viable Constitution. Just as the commercial interests in the large, affluent societies are manipulating the taste and the life-style of individuals for their own existential needs, so are the consequences of a defective appreciation of the normal balances and mechanisms in society an inevitable result of these commercial manipulations.

If people really think, that it is justified to demand ever more from society, or their employers, without considering what has to be put back in return, then, such a society is on its way to decay and collapse. If people, commercial enterprises and politicians alike, let themselves be steered into ever more strident and egocentric attitudes, based on the life-style and values which the commercial interests have been propagating for decades, then, they are tearing society apart without knowing it, and, without caring about it. Perhaps, they act in the mistaken and ignorant belief, that the social environment will be able to keep a measure of peaceful co-existence, if it gives in to one pressure group after another.

I would like to know a few social or political heroes, whom I could really believe in, study and admire, because I would then be able to come to the conclusion, that they had found a durable way to put-together a just, stable and harmonious society. But, I have to remind myself, that I have advocated, time and again, the idea, that, any form of social cohesion is a "living structure", and, that such a social structure shares, with all other forms of life, the fact, that it is mortal, and, that it will, therefore, fall-apart, again, after a period of growth, stability and a variable degree of success.

I am also aware of the fact, that we need to bring-about a measure of social cohesion on a global scale, and, that our efforts to solve our problems by competition, by defending a position of privilege, or, by ignoring the problems of other societies, are becoming less effective and less durable. On the contrary, the old primitive ways to secure viability by erecting a fortress around ourselves, are doomed to failure, because we will, either, impoverish each other to the point of starvation, (if we remain immobile in our defensive and fortified enclaves), or, we will destroy the last chance to forge a viable but sophisticated and integrated way of life, by unleashing a war with our modern weaponry.

Perhaps, the dilemmas and the problems we face in the search for a viable way to live together on a scale of global integration and mutual trust, are a reflection of the fact, that we still adhere, too much, to the rather primitive mechanisms of hero-worship. We adhere, still, too unthinkingly, to the mechanisms of imitating an example blindly; an example we have chosen to emulate, often, without knowing, why, and, without the ability to substantiate, intellectually, a particular choice of hero-worship.

Indeed, the way we follow, blindly and unthinkingly, the fanatic and absolute beliefs of our leaders, may well lie at the root of the problems we face. We still do not realise, adequately, how much we love to fight, or, at least, how much we like to posture belligerently, because, it makes us "feel so good". We still do not realise the utterly devastating consequences, if we choose the way of an armed conflict, with all the hardships and suffering that go with it. We still do not realise, how dangerous our heroes can be, in particular, if they are heroes of the battle-field or the revolutionary over-throw.

Let us be aware of the dangers to create powerful and victorious heroes, because we will, eventually, be destroyed by these idols. We may triumph, now, in the honest belief, that we are fighting a just cause, but, after a period of triumph and weakening prosperity, we will be defeated by an enemy, who believes, just as fervently, in the absolute righteousness of its particular Cause.

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Chapter 8

Content

It is time to re-evaluate, carefully, the functions of our heroes.
The many aspects of "courage".
How necessary is it to learn to communicate and understand each other!
It takes courage to go against the main-stream of polarised opinions and commonly accepted attitudes.
If we remain focussed upon our heroes of war and victory, of strength and revenge, of triumph and righteousness, we will perish in a gigantic conflagration of nuclear warfare.
Is it possible to accept a hero of compassion, tenderness or concern?
Keeping our emotions under control.
The virtue of self-reliance and self-discipline.
Practicing "preventative social medicine".
Learning "the hard way" may become too destructive.
An ideal to be emulated; the all-out effort to do the best we can.
Something can not come from nothing; a principle that applies to social mechanisms as well.
A "shining beacon" that appeals strongly to me; the ideal of perfection.
The unfortunate price of specialisation.
There is a lot we can learn to do for ourselves.
Ideals are abstractions, or qualities, which have been accepted as guiding principles from the examples and achievements of our heroes.
A healthy attitude of inquiry and skepticism, whenever we come into contact with the experts we need.
An expert has to be able to communicate with people outside his specialty.

It is time, that we evaluate and re-evaluate, carefully, the functions of our heroes. Courage, yes, certainly; we can always admire an attitude of courage, but, let us make a distinction between the attitudes of courage and belligerence. It is not courageous to criticise or ridicule our enemies, or, those we fear and do not understand. Courage, is to point-out in a balanced review, where, we, as well as our opponents, contributed to rising tensions, and, courage is the ability to state, clearly and steadfastly, where our society, or, our side, contributed to such tensions. Courage is the ability to take criticisms in stride, and, to risk being called a traitor, when making an effort to halt the pernicious events of polarisation and a hysterical slide towards a violent confrontation.

Courage is the willingness to work hard; to make a serious effort to understand, not only, ourselves, but also, the motivations, needs and aspirations of those, who are in conflict and competition with us. Courage is the willingness to solve a situation of conflict with a careful and comprehensive analysis, a patient evaluation of all sides, as well as all angles in a dispute. Courage means, the ability to come, eventually, to a clear decision or plan to solve or settle the dispute in the light of justice and reason; equality and compromise. Courage is the ability to work, diligently, towards a state of mutual understanding between antagonists, even, if our own society is directly involved.

If one watches a debate between two parties who do not understand each other, it is clear, that, quickly, a shouting match develops. Any attempt at communicating with each other deteriorates into a mud-slinging contest, with senseless name-calling. Neither side is able, or willing, to argue precisely, or, to answer, accurately, the questions that are being asked. If you have watched the efforts to create a dialogue between parties or nations that are at loggerheads with each other, it will be clear, that they can not even talk to each other. How necessary is it to learn to communicate and truly understand each other, and, it takes courage to go against the stream of polarised opinions and well-accepted attitudes.

It is time, therefore, to choose heroes and examples that are going to help us in our task to survive the next few centuries. If we remain with our heroes of war and victory, of strength and revenge, of triumph and righteousness, we will all perish in a gigantic conflagration of nuclear warfare.

Yes, it is possible to accept a hero of compassion, tenderness or concern, but, let us be careful to keep our emotions under conrol. If we see someone getting punished, or, if we see someone living in poverty while his neighbour is not, let us not jump to the conclusion, that the parents or the educators are wrong and cruel, and, let us not immediately assume, that the rich fellow is exploiting his poorer neighbour. It may well be, that, in either case, the cause of justice is being served fairly.

It may well be, that the youngster deserved the punishment and needed the correction, and, it is quite possible that a society is adhering to the principles of equal opportunity, while allowing a measure of differentiation on the basis of personal merit. Therefore, it is quite possible, that the poorer neighbour still has to learn a lesson of responsibility. He may well have to learn that he has to work and save in order to have something. If he is careless and wasteful, and, especially, if he relies constantly on the help of friends and relatives, he deserves to be left alone, without help. Perhaps, next time, he will be more careful to save and work hard in order to provide himself, and his dependents, with the basic necessities, rather than squandering his time and his occasional earnings, relying on others to help him out when in need.

Yes, we accept a genuine care and compassion for our fellow human beings, but, we should reject any attempt by others, as well as our own psychological impulses, to become reliant upon others; to become parasites on the labours of others, while we could contribute to our own maintenance with a little more foresight and self-discipline.

Self-discipline will be one of the least likely heroes to be adopted voluntarily and spontaneously, and, yet, we see in history many examples, where the attitudes of discipline and self-discipline were accepted, and, even, eagerly adopted with a strong motivation. This shows us the power and persuasiveness of a strongly coherent, cultural tradition and educational program. In times of stress and difficulties, we can all adapt with a remarkable swiftness to the changing circumstances, and, we see, time and again, how the valuable attitudes of cooperation, hard work and a measure of self-discipine, come to the fore. Why is it always necessary to be reminded, forcefully, about the need for self-discipline; by letting ourselves get into problems or dangerous circumstances, before we can exhibit these "saving" attitudes?

In the future, we will have to practice a great deal of "preventative social medicine", because we can not afford, any longer, to "learn the hard way". The hard way may become too destructive, and, we will have to practice the art of fore-sight and self-discipline, in order to adopt the attitudes and practices that are able to sustain a healthy social organisation. In the future, we will have to adopt, far more deliberately, the healthy attitude of honesty and openness in our dealings with each other; not only, in dealing with people we know personally, but, we should extend our sphere of trust, as well as the right of receiving honesty and trust, to those we do not know, including the many institutions of our social environment. Only, then, can these institutions help us to maintain a society of equal opportunity; of fair and just, open and trustful relationships.

These are very difficult attitudes, indeed, and, it is even diffcult to accept them as an intellectual necessity. How difficult is it, then, to accept these ideas as a principle of practice, especially, when our societies still condone, or, even, encourage, the sharp, free-enterprising business practice, or, the clever exploitation of gullibility and emotional needs. It will be a heroic attitude, indeed, to adopt, deliberately, an attitude of trust, honesty and openness to everyone and all social institutions.

Another heroic ideal to be imitated, will be the all-out effort to do the best we can, rather than the slip-shod approach to a job, where we pride ourselves with the fact, that we can get-away with working as little as possible. Let us realise, that the freedoms in our societies of tomorrow do not include the freedom to exploit other people, or the society at large, and, if we want to be sure, that our good-will and best efforts are not exploited by someone else who can secretly laze-around and profit from our hard work, then, our societies of the future will have to include a scrupulous openness and stringent control over each individual and each social unit, including all government institutions and commercial enterprises.

At the present time, we seem to admire the power of the labour-unions, the influence of professional monopolies, or the secret influence of powerful lobbies and special-interest groupings, and, we still think, that all these "extra-democratic" powers are a legitimate extention of the principles of democratic rule. We still have not recognised the deadly decay of democratic institutions and ideas, which is caused by the proliferation and the open encouragement or acceptance of such special-interest groupings. We still have not learned to see the fundamental social equations that have to be and remain in operation, in order to create and maintain a healthy social environment.

While we all are fairly familiar with the principle that something can not come from nothing, we have, by and large, not learned, as yet, that this same equation or principle applies, also, to our social environment. As long as we think, that we can get more out of society than we have to put-in, we are living-off the reserves of society, or, we live as parasites on the labours of others, who put far more into society than they get out of it.

The shining beacon I like best, is the ideal of perfection; to do everything as well as it can be done under the circumstances. Unfortunately, in an age of rapidly increasing specialisation, as well as the emergence of "the expert", many of us have become somewhat confused, lazy, and, perhaps, intimidated. We have come to believe, that, only the professional, the specialist, the expert can do something to perfection.

Sure, if an area of knowledge has become so vast, that it has to be sub-divided over many different fields of science, it is logical, and un-avoidable, that we have to become a professional expert in such a field, if we have set ourselves the task to work meaningfully in such a field. We have no choice, but to rely in our daily lives on a large number of specialties and specialised fields of expertise, and, it would be impossible to "take-over" completely from these fields of expertise, and do everything for ourselves.

Yet, there is a remarkable amount of things we can learn to do for ourselves. While we will always rely on good medical experts to help us when we are sick, we all can learn a great deal about the way our body and mind function. While we need help in the specific diagnosis and treatment of illnesses and accidents, there is no reason, why we could not learn to live a reasonably healthy and sane life-style, and, there is no reason why it would be impossible to understand the explanations of a doctor, whenever he is trying to tell us what is wrong, and, what can be done about it.

Similarly, we all can have a good idea about the way our house or car has been built; what we have to do to keep it in good repair; how we can save money by buying our food and clothing carefully; how we can help ourselves by making use of locally grown products; how we can save costs and live frugally, so that we are not burdened with the repayment of debts. Then, we will have time to read a book, make a study, or just think and talk things over.

We can become perfectionists in living a frugal and sensible life-style, and, we may become a beacon, or, at least, a sensible example for others. True, it is unlikely, that we will ever be considered a "hero" by living frugally and unobtrusively. This seems to be a hero-image that is so unlike any other, that it may never appeal, except, perhaps, as a way of life. We may, then, become an "anonymous hero", but, this is not so strange, because all the principles and abstract goals we admire and strive for, have been developed and embodied by countless other people, and, yet, we do not remember or know anyone of these people by name.

Ideals are, therefore, the abstractions or qualities that have been taken-over as a guiding principle from our life-and-blood heroes, and, it is, therefore, an important achievement, if we can contribute in our way of life to the spread of an ideal, or, if we can contribute to a way of life that has a good possibility of being accepted as a viable life-style of the future.

Many of us do have a chance, and take the opportunity, to become an expert in a particular field, and, we may make, then, a living, as well as a contribution to society, but, in all other aspects of our lives, we remain a "lay-person". We remain an average citizen who relies on the expertise of others. In the way we make our decisions and judgements as lay-people, we can still be fully aware of the fact, that we do something in the best possible manner; that we do something in a way that reflects fore-sight and thought about the consequences of our actions and decisions; a way of doing things that reflects a healthy dose of inquiry and skepticism, whenever we come into contact with the experts we need.

Let us always encourage a dialogue, and, let us always keep in mind, that it should be possible for an expert, in any field, to explain the problem in such a way, that it becomes understandable for the lay-person. If the expert can not do this; if he can not discuss, clearly and lucidly, the essentials of the problem he is faced with, when consulted by lay-people, then, we should roundly blame the expert for incompetence, and, let us not blame the lay-person for his inability to understand.

An expert has to learn to communicate with people that are not experts, and, if an expert can only communicate with his own colleagues, he becomes a useless and dangerous citizen, just as the leadership of any group, society or nation becomes a menace, if it loses the ability to communicate with its people or the people of other social environments. A leadership has to be able to communicate, simply, but meaningfully, with its own people as well as with other leaders, because, if leaders can not communicate anymore, the winds of war will surely start blowing again.

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Summary

1. The need to emulate exemplary behaviour.
   The process of "becoming someone".
   We create the image of those we admire and worship.
   Shifting to other beacons and guiding principles, when we become a full-grown personality.
   The mysterious glow of "un-reachability".
   Populating the Christian Heavens with an intricate hierarchy of saintly souls.
   The survival of a small group may depend on the willingness of able defenders to risk or sacrifice their lives in combat or the hunt.
   An intense atmosphere of repentence, and the sacrifice of something truly significant; the road towards human sacrifice.
   Creating an attitude of commitment and confidence.
   Fallen heroes become martyrs and saints.
   Psychological mechanisms that lead us through difficult and turbulent times.
   Mechanisms of cultural differentiation.
   Heroes are "inherited" as a cultural legacy.
   We tend to identify, personally, with people and achievements that are "closer by".
   The type of hero we select, subconsciously, reflects, accurately, our needs, interests and priorities.
   
   
   
2. The evolution of behavioural flexibility.
   The need to program the "cerebral computer".
   The act of "imitation" functions as a valuable short-cut to finding an appropriate response, as long as there is an insufficient foundation of personal experiences.
   Influential examples for imitation during early childhood.
   Imitation is, phylogenetically, the oldest form of learning.
   The choice of a hero-image is culturally determined, and depends on personal or local circumstances.
   The drive to engage in emulative behaviour is genetically endowed.
   Mechanisms for "fine-tuning" our behaviour.
   A stream of sense impressions becomes quickly classified into pre-existing and well-established categories.
   There is "nothing new", as the days, weeks, months and years slide by.
   Cerebral and mental systems of classification.
   Verbalisable structures of beliefs.
   The mechanisms of learning by imitation are part of a legacy of behavioural flexibility.
   A constellation of factors determines the extent of our sphere of awarenesses and interests, loyalties and suspicions.
   The value of studying patterns of identification.
   When we have nothing in common, anymore.
   
   
   
3. Value-judgements are absorbed from the cultural environment.
   Unquestionable values.
   Encountering people, who make us think and justify what we believe to be true.
   A specific "cultural veneer".
   The role of beliefs and value-judgements.
   A review of physiological mechanisms.
   Relying heavily on acquired skills, learned abilities, and a body of knowledge and experience.
   Becoming a "master".
   Entertainment; giving the people what they want to hear and see, experience and believe.
   Searching for "true models" to imitate or emulate.
   A much needed cohesion for becoming an integrated member of society.
   Efficient development of the personality requires a combination of evolutionary "older" and "newer" forms of learning.
   Our interests are slowly shaping into a more precise understanding of specific fields of knowledge and skills.
   Becoming sensitive to the beauty of an accomplishment.
   Having encountered something of great value is an emotional and developmental milestone.
   The social environment may fail to recognise the importance of a "discovery" by a youngster or adolescent.
   Too often, a youngster is left on his own, wandering and searching aimlessly, year after year.
   A "beacon", shrouded in an irrealistic haze, where fact and fantasy produce an exciting imagery that escapes a thorough analysis or precise understanding.
   
   
   
4. On the sea of life, the navigational beacons never remain static in position or appearance.
   Learning to resign ourselves to the position we find ourselves in.
   Wondering, whether we have seen any land at all.
   The real value of the light-houses we have seen.
   Overwhelmed by a feeling of insignificance.
   We have to give our lives a sense of direction and purpose.
   Rigid behaviour-patterns are self-defeating.
   The criteria of productivity.
   Cautious judgements.
   A ruthless concentration upon personal achievements accentuates anti-social attitudes and non-ethical behaviour-patterns.
   Sports and the arts in Socialist nations.
   All hard-working achievers are tempted to translate their achievements into a personal or financial gain.
   Defections to the West; for the sake of monetary gains?
   The cloak of "artistic freedom".
   Let us not react with anger or despair at "reactionary" or "counter-revolutionary" attitudes.
   Contrasting judgements about political heroes.
   A hero for some, an arch-enemy for others.
   It is easy to "justify" an opportunistic act of aggression and exploitation.
   Let us be cautious in our worship of national or political heroes.
   Designing a system of education, where youngsters from different cultural, ethnic or national origins can look upon each other as "brothers and sisters of mankind".
   The fragile and labile conditions of prosperity and peace.
   
   
   
5. The lability and transience of culturally encoded instructions constitutes, probably, an ultimately fatal flaw in the evolutionary heritage of the human species.
   A different problem compared to over-specialisation and the loss of adaptability.
   No other species is so restless, violent and destructive, after it has reached a point of evolutionary success.
   A gifted, natural leader may become a "founding father", when the time for expansion and rapid developments is ripe.
   Qualities of a natural leader.
   The problem associated with a peaceful and orderly leadership succession.
   The emergence of a political martyr-hero.
   Mechanisms of polarisation.
   Halting insane, all-out conflicts by the imposition of a judicial or negotiated settlement.
   The role of world public opinion in the future.
   Religious and political heroes are closely related.
   Mechanisms of entrapment.
   Old ways die hard; the habit of settling a conflict by violent means.
   It is so difficult to listen to a detested opinion.
   Consequences of a fervent commitment to a revolutionary struggle.
   The mechanisms of equalisation have to take place within the framework of explicit and detailed Constitutional Guidelines.
   
   
   
6. A cultural hero emphasises a specific skill, rather than the existential security of a particular group.
   A variety of examples.
   The gifted artist knows, intuitively, how to concentrate on the essential features that can be recognised by many different peoples.
   A good philosopher should be able to accomplish the same universality of appeal in his thought-patterns.
   The political or religious hero needs the "artistic hero" to interpret the meaning of his or her existence.
   Learning to analyse and understand the influences we are exposed to.
   A review of hierarchical relationships.
   The increasingly "cultural" qualities of natural leadership in a sophisticated, small community.
   A reliance upon "input".
   A review of leadership developments.
   The jet-liner that hit a bridge during a snow-storm.
   Heroism is, in essence, an act of sublime, natural leadership.
   The existence of many nameless heroes.
   A sense of uselessness and waste, when reflecting upon the heroic efforts of some people to preserve the moral values of the society they believe in.
   Most soldiers, who gave their lives for their country, would turn-over in their graves, if they could see what happened to the society they fought and died for.
   The deaths of our fighting heroes made room for those, who managed to survive the upheavals of war.
   
   
   
7. Leadership is a function for the living members of society, and the act of hero-worship functions as a beacon of hope and guidance for those, who are struggling to survive or grow-up.
   A smooth transition from being formed, to becoming a model for others.
   Let us do our work as well as we can.
   The art of capturing the imagination of students.
   A defective understanding is the most serious handicap for a teacher.
   Judging the teaching-experience as a burden and a waste of time.
   There is a need to re-evaluate, continuously, the content and form of the educational program.
   The wide-ranging aspects of relevance.
   It is not easy to make our youngsters select their exemplary models from a repertoir we have consciously and deliberately put before them.
   Problems for chaotic, fragmented and crime-ridden societies.
   Commercial interests have learned to manipulate the taste and identification mechanisms of a large audience.
   A clever, pragmatic "feel" for whatever will attract attention.
   The power of money and a firm control over the mass-media.
   A familiar lament.
   A reminder, that society is a living structure with a limited life-span.
   We still adhere, too much, to the rather primitive mechanisms of hero-worship.
   
   
   
8. It is time to re-evaluate, carefully, the functions of our heroes.
   The many aspects of "courage".
   How necessary is it to learn to communicate and understand each other!
   It takes courage to go against the main-stream of polarised opinions and commonly accepted attitudes.
   If we remain focussed upon our heroes of war and victory, of strength and revenge, of triumph and righteousness, we will perish in a gigantic conflagration of nuclear warfare.
   Is it possible to accept a hero of compassion, tenderness or concern?
   Keeping our emotions under control.
   The virtue of self-reliance and self-discipline.
   Practicing "preventative social medicine".
   Learning "the hard way" may become too destructive.
   An ideal to be emulated; the all-out effort to do the best we can.
   Something can not come from nothing; a principle that applies to social mechanisms as well.
   A "shining beacon" that appeals strongly to me; the ideal of perfection.
   The unfortunate price of specialisation.
   There is a lot we can learn to do for ourselves.
   Ideals are abstractions, or qualities, which have been accepted as guiding principles from the examples and achievements of our heroes.
   A healthy attitude of inquiry and skepticism, whenever we come into contact with the experts we need.
   An expert has to be able to communicate with people outside his specialty.

.......