THE PHENOMENON OF STRESS I








A Study in Thought

sa098



by





Marius Heuff

Chapter 1

Content

It takes both partners in a situation of conflict to negotiate a settlement.
A negotiated settlement tends to reflect a balance of powers.
A field of "vectors".
The ability to settle for less than was hoped for, or considered fair.
When rivals are nearly evenly matched.
Different conflicts have varying intensities.
When the goal is dominance, rather than conquest or exploitation.
Intense rivalries can only be controled by a superior power.
Forces that play a role in the existence of, and inter-actions between, organisational systems.
A wide-ranging discussion.
We are always dealing with matter and energy, and the forces that relate the various forms of matter-energy to each other.
Radiating and locked-up forms of matter-energy.
A brief review of living and non-living organisational systems.
A complementary conglomerate of socially integrated components enhances the potential for existence.
A strong "centripetal force", or existential need, lies behind the maintenance of such an integrated conglomerate.
A threshold energy-input for inter-actions between, or transformations of, non-living systems.
Inter-actions between radiant and orbital forms of energy.
Living and non-living systems contain the same atomic elements.
Organic combinations or organisations of various elements acquire the quality of "fragility"; not the elements themselves.
Gravitational, mechanical, thermal, chemical, electro-static and electro-magnetic force-fields.
The electro-magnetic spectrum of radiating wave-fronts.
Together, all these disruptive displacement-forces are called "stress".
Stress may come from external or internal force-fields.

It takes both partners in a conflict-situation to come to a negotiated settlement, while it takes only one partner to decide, that the solution to a conflict will be in the form of a battle. Yet, even, in a situation, where a clash of arms is substituted with a negotiated settlement, we see, almost without exception, that the terms of the agreement reflect a balance of power, or, the relative strengths of the opposing sides. A negotiated settlement implies a process of "adjustment"; the acceptance of a situation that is less than what is desired or hoped-for, and, such an adjustment to the realities of a situation, is often a painful process, even, if it is far less painful than suffering a defeat in a violent confrontation.

Therefore, there is always a field of "vectors" at work in any conflict-situation, even, in situations, where the opposing forces may settle on a "point of stability", or "resultant", without the use of armed combat. However, the ability, or the willingness, to appraise, realistically, one's position, is often lacking, at one side or the other, and, the participant(s) in a dispute "have to be shown", then, through the outcome of armed conflict, what their position of strength, or weakness, really is.

It is possible for prudent minds, who still remember the devastations of a previous war, to forego the actual combat and substitute it with a more or less voluntary agreement, where a change in the status-quo reflects the relative strength of the conflicting parties. This adjustment is psychologically painful, because it involves the art of foregoing the euphoria of a belligerent rethoric, and, it requires a sober mind. It means, that one is able to settle for much less than was hoped for, and, frequently, for less than is considered fair or just.

A negotiated settlement may mean a set-back and a harsher way of life, but, the great advantage of a negotiated settlement lies in the fact, that it by-passes the unimaginable horrors of war, and it gives the community, or an individual, a chance to "learn one's lesson" and build-up one's strength, so that one will be in a better position to negotiate, next time.

A conflict of interest is most likely to lead to violent skirmishes, if the combatants are more or less evenly matched. This may sound somewhat contradictory, and, indeed, it is true, that a scrupulously matched balance of power is a strong deterrent to either side to engage in armed conflict. However, if one party is far stronger than the other, there is a sense of futility and hopelessness on the part of the weaker party to resist domination by the stronger party, and, we see, then, that it is easier to accept the necessity to "align" oneself with a much stronger neighbour.

If the parties are more or less equal in strength, and, if neither party can see the other as "naturally dominant", then, we see the most intense atmosphere of conflict and strife develop, in particular, if a long sequence of hostile events has created, not only, an atmosphere of intense rivalry, but, also, of hatred and contempt. Then, both sides may come to the conclusion, that the other has to be eliminated for good. Then, the level of competitive strife has reached such a level of intensity, that each party is literally fighting for its survival.

Yet, many conflicts never reach this intensity. As we mentioned, the stronger party in a confrontational situation may be merely trying to bring a weaker neighbour "in line", and the rewards for the acceptance of dominance are often substantial. Sure, a measure of contribution is often required, such as an oath of allegiance, the use of strategic positions, or a levy in taxes and other contributions, etc., but, on the other hand, such an "aligned party" will receive protection, privileges, as well as other benefits associated with being a partner, or, a part of a much larger empire. Here, the confrontational situation is comparable to the "test-fight" within the hierarchical order of a small social grouping, while the conflict between "equals" who despise each other intensely, leads to a situation, where there is no room for both.

However, such an intense situation of rivalry may still be kept in check by a superior power, in particular, if both combatants belong to the sphere of influence of a larger power. The situation is, then, comparable to the restraints imposed by a leader on two quarreling dependents. A deadly conflict will eliminate or seriously weaken two or more members of the group, and the leader will resist, consciously or intuitively, the weakening of "his group".

Yet, a similar, deadly situation of conflict may arise between the leaders of two more or less equal but independent or "sovereign" powers. While this near-balance of power may act, to some extent, as an inhibitory factor, suppressing the desire to solve the rivalry by armed conflict, the inability to be actively restrained by a stronger power, may lead to an intense and irreconcilable conflict-situation. Then, there is a complete polarisation between two leaders and their groupings, and, the same may happen between super-powers and their "allies".

We have discussed these mechanisms before, but we have re-iterated them as an introduction to a much broader and more encompassing subject. We want to review, here, in a broad perspective, the forces that play a role in the existence of, and inter-actions between, all sorts of organisational systems, be they living or non-living systems. The living systems may represent a single cell, a multi-cellular organism, a single human being, a group of people in a small social unit, the much larger social unit of a large nation or federation, or, the tentative organic unit of "mankind as a whole".

The world of inorganic or non-living existence is also made-up of systems with opposing and inter-acting force-fields. Look at the atom with its nucleus and the various layers of orbiting electrons. They are bound to the nucleus by an electro-static force between the negative electrons and the positive charge of the nucleus. The centrifugal momentum of the orbiting electrons is counter-acted by the centripetal force of the electro-static attraction between the cloud of negative electrons and the positively charged nucleus.

This inorganic system of opposing forces is very similar to the solar system with its satellites or planets. We see the same system of inter-acting forces reflected at many levels of inorganic existence. It plays a role in the cluster of galaxies, spinning around each other as they are orbiting in a "gravitational hold", and, it is reflected in the spiral arms of the rotating galaxy with its many billions of stars. We see the same forces at work in the individual planets and their satellites, the moons.

Even, if we visualise the interior of an atomic nucleus, we see, that matter particles are made-up of rotational complexes of even smaller components, where a strong attractional force, such as between matter and anti-matter, is counter-balancing the extremely energetically rotational complexes and their momenta.

Everywhere we look, we see, that matter, energy and force are related to each other. We know, now, that a number of force-fields are present whenever we are dealing with a quantum of energy, and, we know, now, also, that matter is energy that has been "locked-up" into rotational complexes. Energy can also exist in a relatively stable state in a "radiant form". Here, electro-magnetic wave-fronts, with many different frequencies, speed through space with the characteristic velocity of "light", and, they find in this "linear" or radiating wave-front a measure of stability. The orbital form of stability occurs, whenever energy has been locked into rotational complexes, and, we have discussed, on previous occasions, how we can visualise a series of "evolutionary" steps, where ever larger complexes of matter-energy particles are created within various stellar furnaces because of their enormously high pressures and temperatures.

Similarly, we have described, on many occasions, the essential outlines of the living organisation. We have seen, that the essence of organic matter is its fragility under normal terrestial circumstances. This means, that, organic matter has to be continuously reformed or replaced, just as the out-flow of water from a rapid has to be replenished continuously by the in-flux of new or fresh water, before the rapid, as a phenomenon of existence, can find a measure of stability.

This imagery leads to the pre-cellular or biochemical evolution of organic or biochemical substances. We have seen, how the association of a large number of complementary and supplementary substances plays a role in extending the possibilities of existence, or viability, of such a proto-biochemical or protoplasmic conglomerate and its participating substances. This natural experiment with possibilities of organic existence leads, eventually, to the emergence of the cellular unit with the many capabilities and characteristics of a living organisation.

The point we want to emphasise, here, is the fact, that the primary living system of the living organisation, the cell, is also subjected to a large number of contradictory or opposing forces. The forces that tend to make these labile substances disappear are balanced by forces that promote the formation of new substances, or, by preventing the break-down of these labile substances from taking place. This can be done by replacing, in time, the energy-gradient that is constantly being lost, or dissipated, by the "water-fall", or rapid, of the biochemical conglomerate. In addition, we see, that, many organic substances are only able to maintain their existence by existing as a conglomerate, and there is, therefore, a strong "centripetal force", or existential need, at work to maintain this conglomerate as a whole.

At the same time, all these different substances are competing for the available energy-gradient, and, there are numerous electrical and mechanical force-fields, or concentration-gradients, that tend to disperse these substances, because they are not locked into a crystalline lattice but exist, primarily, in a fluid or semi-fluid form. The essential difference between an organic and an inorganic system seems to be the fact, that an organic system needs the continuous influx of a minimum level of "maintenance energy". The inorganic unit does not appear to require such an influx, but, neither does it have the ability to inter-act with the existing terrestial force-fields.

In other words; all possible transformations, such as the formation of chemical bonds, have already taken place, and, all inorganic matter has already "run-down" to its lowest possible level of existence. All inter-actions or transformations require, therefore, a "threshold energy-input", such as heating or thermal agitation, before these inorganic systems become, again, capable of inter-acting with a substance in the environment of an existing force-field.

The combustion process is an example of an inter-action that needs, first, the addition of energy, before the chain-reaction of combustion and the liberation of heat-energy can take pace. Yet, is it, indeed, correct to assume, that inorganic matter does not require any "maintenance-energy"? In our highly speculative essay "Oscillations", we have dwelled on the possibility, that the force of gravity represents such an influx of "maintenance-energy" from the ubiquitous "electro-magnetic grid", because the inter-action between rotating, locked-in energy-quanta and the radiating energy-quanta of the electro-magnetic grid, may lead to an absorbtion of certain electro-magnetic frequencies, as well as the dissipation of other frequencies, in the form of non-specific thermal energies.

We should emphasise, here, that the living organisation is made-up of the same atomic elements that constitute the world of inorganic existence, and, the qualities, as well as the peculiarities of the living organisation, are due to the existence of labile, fragile and reactable molecules, (composed of ordinary, inorganic atomic elements), which would not have a chance to maintain themselves or to be formed outside the particular conditions of the living protoplasm. The specificity of organic existence is found, therefore, in the fragility of a variety of specific, large molecules, but, not in the elements that make-up these molecules.

Life, is represented by an organisation of essentially inorganic materials, and the characteristics of life are due to the specific organisation of a number of atomic elements, together with the chemical reaction-patterns that open-up with the existence of a number of large, polymerised molecules that are labile, fragile and constantly in need of repair.

What do organic and inorganic systems have in common, then? The elements of the organic systems of life are the same as those of the inorganic world, but, the molecular complexes are larger, more complex and much more prone to a break-down. However, these complexes are also subjected to gravitational, mechanical, electrical and electro-magnetic force-fields, just like all particles of matter-energy. One of these forces is represented by the force-field of temperature, or thermal agitation, which "shakes" large complexes as a whole. This is due to the fact, that matter-energy particles inter-act with radiant, electro-magnetic wave-forms.

Another part of the electro-magnetic spectrum can "excite" electrons specifically, especially those that orbit around atomic nuclei in the outer shells. This, too, is not specific to the organic system, in spite of the fact that the living systems depend for their maintenance and energy-supplies upon a cascading flow of excited electrons that have derived their energy, ultimately, from absorbing photonic energy from solar radiation.

The most energetic segment of the electro-magnetic spectrum, such as cosmic rays and gamma-radiation, may have all sorts of disruptive effects on the larger, organic molecules, especially, those carrying the genetic code. This genetic code is necessary for the proper function of the metabolic machinery, as well as the reproduction of an entire cellular unit.

Living and non-living systems are also subjected to the same mechanical and chemical presures of the world of inorganic existence, and, the characteristic fragility of the living systems means, that these systems are less able to resist such disruptive forces compared to inorganic systems, which exist frequently in a crystalline state. In short, there exists a large variety of force-fields to which all systems of existence, (or particles of matter-energy in their various organisational forms), are subjected, and, all these forces are primarily disruptive or entropic in nature. Together, all these disruptive displacement forces are called "stress".

Stress may come from the outside, or, it may arise from a disruption of the balance of forces inside a system of organised existence. A stress tends to disrupt an existing status-quo, or equilibrium, and, we see, then, that we are dealing with a large and complex field of phenomena. Indeed, the only way to get a grip on the phenomenon of stress is to refer constantly back to the essential nature of matter. Even, when discussing the various forms of stress to which man and his social environment are subjected, we will have to come back, again and again, to the way these living units have been built-up. Only, if we understand the essence of the existence of matter-energy, and, only, if we understand the forces that play a role in the normal functions of man and his societies, only, then, can we see, clearly, when these force-fields are getting out of balance and are becoming disruptive.

.......

Chapter 2

Content

A cascading flow of energy; a "water-fall" of excited electrons.
The essence of the mechanisms of "socialisation", or social integration.
The feature of inter-dependence.
The element of competitive drive is never far from the surface, even in socially integrated forms of existence.
Specialisations in function.
A review of the mechanisms of competitive strife, which are not limited to the living organisation.
Growing and starving rivulets.
The phenomenon of "proto-bioluminescence".
When the river-bed is "soft".
A preferential flow through large channels of energy-dissipation, because they offer less resistance.
The transition from competitive strife to predatory behaviour-patterns.
Why there is no "natural death" for a single cell.
An absence of ageing processes.
Mitotic division spells the end of the existence of a single cell.
The arms-race of nature.
A search for viability.
A successful form of predatorial behaviour.
All animals are predators.
Competitive strife between vegetative life-forms.
The human being is a complex, multi-cellular animal.
We are heir to the developments of competitive strife and predation, but, also, to behavioural flexibility and symbiosis.
Structures of belief, and the perception of reality.
The forces that tend to drive us away from a comfortable "optimum equilibrium".

We have discussed on previous occasions, how the evolution of biochemical substances came-about, and, how the possibilities of existence for each labile substance would increase, if a number of complementary substances existed together. The existence of a number of labile or fragile compounds could be dependent, e.g., on a cascading flow of energy, such as a "water-fall" of excited electrons, and, if a number of substances would form a suitable "stair-case" or path-way for such a flow of excited electrons, the possibilities of existence for each substance would be re-enforced, as long as they stayed together and formed a path-way to dissipate the energy that had been captured through electron excitation.

This phenomenon, where a number of complementary substances find an enhanced possibility of existence by staying together and maintaining a specific pattern of spatial relationships, is an important one, because it marks, in essence, the birth of the mechanism of "socialisation" or social integration. This principle recurs again and again. We see it emerge in the pre-cellular evolution of the protoplasmic primordium, and, we see it, again, at the level of the multi-cellular organism. There, a large number of cells, usually numbering into the billions, find an enhanced degree of viability by existing together as a tightly-knit colony, where groups of cells begin to function in a specialised manner. Then, the cells become specialised in form as well function, and, they change from a mass of essentially similar and competitive cells, into groups with a specific function for the organism as a whole.

Each group carries-out a particular function for the entire multi-cellular colony, and, each grouping becomes then complementary to, and dependent upon, the others. In this way, the competitive pressures are diminished. Cells can live much more closely to each other, because they become less competitive and more inter-dependent. Yet, in many ways, cells remain similar in their needs, and, the competitive drive is never far from the surface, requiring constant control, as well as a large number of sophisticated regulatory mechanisms in order to keep the behaviour of each cell or cell-group within "socially acceptable limits".

We see the process of social integration again, when multi-cellular organisms start to form a "socially integrated grouping", where the members begin to rely upon the mechanisms of specialisation in function and carry-out different chores or tasks. We have discussed before the many similarities, as well as differences, in the "socialisation" of the multi-cellular human being, especially, when compared to the social integration of the cells within the human body. Here, we want to emphasise the fact, that, at all levels of the living organisation, we see the emergence of the "social principle" as one of the solutions to the problems associated with the phenomenon of "competitive strife".

Let us review, here, in more detail, the phenomenon of competitive strife. We will see, that this phenomenon antedates the emergence of the living unit, and, it is, therefore, not a characteristic that is specifically associated with the living organisation. Then, we will discuss a much more specific development that represents an off-shoot of the phenomenon of competitive strife, and is limited to the animal kingdom; the break-through of predatorial behaviour, as well as "active combat".

The phenomenon of competitive strife is already visible in the way rivulets of water grow, while dissipating a gravitational energy-gradient in the form of a flow of water over a gently sloping, muddy or sandy terrain. This imagery has been elaborated before, and we will only recall the essential features. In such a situation, we see that, initially, there are innumerable small rivulets seeking, here and there, the "easiest" path of flow, or, the "path of least resistance".

Soon, these rivulets begin to scour a larger path-way in the soft terrain, as small particles of sand are washed away. This scouring of a "river-bed" results in a lowering of the resistance offered by the sandy terrain to the flow of water. Consequently, a few of the rivulets become larger, and the smaller rivulets situated in between the larger rivulets are quickly "starved", as water tends to follow the path of least resistance. The larger rivulets are growing bigger and the smaller ones dry-out completely, or, they may remain as small tributaries to the larger rivulet, which quickly grows, until it borders on the next large rivulet. This border between them is a "water-shed", or "divide".

The same imagery visualises the growth of larger, more complex, more efficient, but, also, more durable and adaptable biochemical rivulets, which evolved in the protoplasmic primordium. This "soft", changeable, polymerising pool of proto-biochemical substances is comparable to the soft, muddy bottom of the rivulets of water, dissipating a gravitational energy-gradient.

The energy-gradient in the protoplasmic primordium is created by the absorption of photonic energy from the sun, resulting in the excitation of certain electron orbits. This energy can be given-off again, during the night, as a spectacular event of "bio-luminescence", or, rather, as the phenomenon of proto-bioluminescence, because there is no complete living organisation as yet. However, this energy can also flow along other proto-biochemical substances, if they happen to form a suitable path-way. Those, which are aligned, attract, just like a river-bed, a nearly constant flow of energy, and this enhances the possibility of existence for these fragile, labile, changeable biochemical components.

Unlike the biochemical substances, the particles forming the river-bed for a rivulet of water, are not dependent upon this continuous flow of water through them, but, if we visualise the bottom to be quite soft, we see, that a "dry" river-bed has a tendency to collapse, as there is no longer any water-pressure to continue or maintain the scouring processes. In this way, we can make the analogy with the biochemical river-beds even more convincing.

The processes that describe the preferential flow of energy through the larger, less resistant channels, together with the subsequent starvation of the smaller, less efficient channels, is the essence of the phenomenon of "competitive strife", and, we see, here, quite clearly, that this phenomenon is not dependent upon an active, living organism. The behaviour of active combat and predation is, however, specific for the animal kingdom, and, in this definition we apply the term "predation" to all attacks against living organisms, and not just against living animals. The herbivore is, therefore, a "predator" of the vegetating life-forms.

How did this development occur? We see the processes of predation and active combat arise already during the stage of uni-cellular life. We can visualise an intense competition between the freely floating, metabolising and duplicating cells, in particular, when the environmental conditions began to change and the protoplasmic primordium started to disappear. We have discussed, before, how the pressures of growth and reproduction led, quickly, to a condition of "saturation". Then, the population density of the cells has become maximal. Any further growth and reproduction is offset by the weakening and death of a similar number of organisms that have lost-out, for one reason or another, in the competitive struggle for existence.

Let us remind ourselves, that, in this model of the living organisation, there is no "natural death", nor is there an essential limit to the age of a cell. We have seen, on previous occasions, how the mitotic division of a single cell during the process of multiplication or reproduction, gives rise to two "new cells", and not, to one young one and one old cell.

Quickly, cells learn to utilise the materials that are being released by dead and dying cells into the environment. This is the development of the "saprophytic" way of life, and, it is only a small step away from an act of predation, which is characterised by the development of substances or behaviour-patterns that actively speed-up the disintegration of a dying cell. Soon, a still living but weak cell is "attacked", physically and chemically, and, the process of death is actively induced by a variety of chemical and mechanical means.

Now, the arms-race is on. There is a never-ending struggle between the evolutionary forces, searching for the most viable way of existence. This search takes two forms, which develop simultaneously in the history of natural evolution, and, these mechanisms may also evolve simultaneously, or side by side, in the formation of a specific living organisation. The accent of the search for survival may lie upon an "aggressive" form of existence, with the development of substances, mechanical devices or behavioural capabilities that favour the penetration and destruction of another cell, or, the accent may fall upon behaviour-patterns, substances or mechanical devices that shield an organism from such predatorial attacks.

Indeed, the attack upon another living organism in order to use its body as a means of obtaining building-blocks or energy, is the essence of the predatorial way of life, and, it is logical, that the "defense" against such behaviour played a major role in the struggle for survival, by animals and plants alike.

The predatorial form of behaviour was so successful, that, all those organisms belonging to the realm of the animals, have become completely dependent upon the predatorial way of life. This means, that they lost the ability to synthesise the necessary building-blocks from their inorganic environment with the help of sun-light; (photosynthesis). Aside from a few notable exceptions, we do not see a predatorial way of life amongst the plants. There is rarely an active destruction of other life, but, there is, often, a "sapping" of other life-forms, where nutrients are siphoned-off in a parasitic way of life. This means, that the phenomenon of competitive strife remains "alive and well" in the world of vegetating life-forms. We only have to look around us, to see, how plants are vying for a place to grow, and, how they are competing with each other in order to get sufficient sun-light, water and nutrients, soil and space.

The human being represents a large community of specialised cell-groups, belonging to the animal kingdom, and, the human life-form has to supply, therefore, its basic existential needs through a predatory way of life; the killing of other animals or plants, or, a combination of both. However, man is also heir to an evolutionary development of "behavioural flexibility", and, this means, that, parental example, or the example of the adults in the immediate social environment, as well as personal experiences, play a large role in shaping the behaviour of the human organism. In addition, the human being is heir to a process of socialisation within a small nomadic grouping, as we have discussed on numerous occasions. Finally, the human species has develped a communally shared "structure of beliefs", which has an enormous influence upon the way the human being interprets experiences and sense impressions.

The conscious perception and interpretation of reality influences our behaviour to a remarkable extent, as we all know, but, the emergence of a belief-structure, or "behavioural modulator", has also made the human species quite widely divergent in its behaviour-patterns. This phenomenon of cultural diversity, based upon diverging structures of beliefs and diverging communal behaviour-patterns, is quite unique, because no other species shows the same wide divergence from group to group, without becoming separate species'.

This is a short description of the essence of our existence, which we will refer to in order to analyse the phenomenon of stress in all its aspects. Before we can analyse all the factors and forces that tend to put a pressure, or a stress, on our existence, we have to have a clear idea about the sort of optimum state or "optimum equilibrium" we are striving towards, either consciously, or subconsciously. Only, if we have a clear idea of the direction we, as a living entity, as an individual, or as a socially integrated grouping, are inclined to follow, only, then, can we understand, describe, and, perhaps, measure, to some extent, the magnitude or severity of the forces that tend to drive us away from a comfortable homeostasis or "optimum equilibrium".

.......

Chapter 3

Content

The cell; its goals, and the conditions of an optimum equilibrium.
The flow of energy through the cellular protoplasm.
A basic, maintenance-energy to keep the organisation of life intact.
Surplus energies.
A declining efficiency, as the supply of energy becomes more abundant.
A gradual transition between growth and reproduction.
Why there is an essential "instability" in the organisation of life.
An early example of "polarisation".
A continuous cycle of growth and division.
An equilibrium between growth-pressures and counter-acting force-fields from the environment.
A balance between "births and deaths".
A rapid "flow-through" of individuals.
An ideal environment for the forces of natural selection.
A multi-cellular organism has to be built from a single fertilised egg-cell.
The mitotic reconstruction of a multi-cellular embryo.
A reliance upon "the hunt".
The complex search for a possibility to exist.
An optimum equilibrium for human existence.
A tight correlation between mental and physical requirements for the normal development of a youngster.
Limits to the demands for attention and gratification.
Growing-up under relatively stable circumstances.
Learning the principles of common-sense from an early age.
The advantage of "being average".

Let us look, first, at the living organisation of a single cell, and, let us see, what its goals are, and, what sort of optimum equilibrium is operative in such a relatively simple organisation, because it seems reasonable to assume, that the goal-patterns of the much higher evolved life-forms, including the human being, are still based on these earlier models.

We see, first of all, that a living organisation, such as a single cell, has a certain flow of energy going through its system. There is, probably, a "maximum rate of flow", meaning, that, regardless of the abundance of energy available, a cell can handle, only, "so much". Part of this energy is needed to fuel the necessary repair mechanisms. This is the minimum, or "basic maintenance-energy", and, if the available energy would fall below this level, the living organism will suffer damage, unless it can call on reserves to supplement the flow of available energy.

The flow of energy above the maintenance level is, in essence, "surplus", because there is no immediate need for it, but, if we look at the needs of a species as a whole, we see, that the actual minimum maintenance level required by a species as a whole, is somewhat higher compared to the individual level of basic maintenance. This difference is a result of the needs of "reproduction". There is, therefore, no sharp distinction between the basic level of energy-requirements and a surplus of energies. There is no difference in the way basic maintenance-energy and surplus energy are being utilised by a cell. Energy at the basic maintenance level is used to repair and replenish structures, and, if the level of energy is somewhat larger, we may assume, that the level of production and replenishment is also somewhat higher.

It is very likely, that the rate of energy-utilisation becomes somewhat less efficient, as the supply becomes more abundant, because it seems to be a general characteristic of living systems, inluding human beings, that their rate of energy-utilisation drops, as the supply of energy becomes more plentiful. At the same time, the liberal supply of available energies is utilised for carrying-out all sorts of activities, including the manufacture of "extra" protoplasmic constituents As a general principle we can say, therefore, that an increased energy-supply leads to a build-up of organic or protoplasmic materials. This, of course, is the essence of the phenomenon of "growth".

In the single-celled organism, we see a gradual transition between growth and reproduction; at least, we seem to be dealing, in essence, with the same mechanisms. As the bulk of a cell increases and many structures become abundant, a certain "instability" arises, just as we saw this same element of instability come to the fore, when a social grouping of nomadic individuals became "too numerous".

At a certain point in this build-up of protoplasmic materials, a sequence of events is triggered, which sets into motion an orderly division of the cell. The genetic code of the cell is carefully reproduced and separated. Each full complement of genetic instructions moves to opposite sides of the cell (the original and earliest example of "polarisation" in the living system), and, the cell is, then, pinched in half. It is not clear, as yet, what, precisely, sets this sequence into motion. We do not know, what sort of balance is disturbed, but, we are able to state, that a certain "crisis-point" is reached, where the forces driving the cellular unit apart have become stronger than those which unify the cell.

However, this crisis follows an orderly sequence of genetic duplication and cellular division, and, the result of this crisis-situation is, in essence, a gain in viability. One has become two, and, each newly divided half of the old cell can absorb a large amount of energy, building-up its protoplasmic contents, until, once again, a crisis-point is reached in the balance between opposing forces, and an orderly resolution of the crisis is obtained through the mechanisms of cellular reproduction, provided, of course, that the proper instructions for such an orderly resolution of the crisis of imbalance are available in the genetic code of the cell.

The point we want to emphasise, here, is the fact, that, health, growth and reproduction, together with a renewal of this cycle of growth and division in a newly formed cell, constitute one continuous "flow" of events. We do not see, as yet, the ageing processes that become such a characteristic feature of the cells of a large, multi-cellular organism. Therefore, there is no "natural death". The identity of an individual cell is dissolved at the time of cellular duplication, and, we assume that both cellular halves acquire an equal amount of older and newly synthesised organic elements, according to the chances of random distribution.

As long as the available energy-level exceeds the pressures on cellular existence, the cells continues to grow and multiply, but, it is clear, that such a logarithmic expansion of the population can not continue indefinitely. Quite soon, a limit is reached, and the cells absorb all the available energy in that particular environment. The level of available energy drops sharply. The rate of growth and reproduction slows-down. The "waste-products" of the cells start to hamper the metabolic processes, and, we see the development of an "equilibrium" between the growth-pressure of cells, fueled by the available energy-level, and, the counter-acting forces of resource scarcities and waste accumulation in the environment.

The cells of a species have, then, populated a particular ecological niche to its maximum capacity. Then, a number of cells fall "below the poverty line". They are getting weaker, and their ability to obtain sufficient energy, building supplies, oxygen and other requirements, drops even further. Yet, there are still a number of stronger cells, which live above the poverty line or the level of minimum requirements. They grow and, eventually, multiply. The "new-comers", descendents of the strongest cells, replace the weaker units, as they die-off and remove themselves from the competitive process.

We can state, therefore, that any species will grow in numbers, until there is an ecological balance. Then, the number of "births" equal the number of "deaths". But, it is clear, that, even, the strongest cells in such a saturated ecological niche do not have an unlimited supply of energy or food. They have to "work hard", and, if they happen to lose-out in the competitive struggle, their supplies quickly drop below the minimum levels required, and, they are in danger of dying. Yet, from an overall point of view, the species is doing quite well. The rapid succession of generations, together with the rapid "flow-through" of individuals, means, that descendents are constantly coming from the strongest segments of the population. As a result, less desirable traits in the genetic make-up are eventually weeded-out, while the desirable or successful traits are enhanced.

Because of this constant element of natural selection in the balanced environment of a saturated ecological niche, we see, that all sorts of "innovations", including those of predatory behaviour, find a possibility to exist. These same mechanisms also explain, why some cells find their "strength" in a particular form of adaptation, and, they will continue, then, a line of offspring with a similar, eventually genetically encoded, "specialty", while other cells find a different "advantage", which also becomes a genetically encoded trait. Here, we see the reason for the phenomenon of diversity in cellular life-forms, even before we see the emergence of multi-cellular life.

Our main emphasis, here, is upon the concept, that cellular behaviour, including the phenomena of differentiation and reproduction can be explained by a balance of forces. We see here an inter-play of force-fields and circumstances that enhance growth and reproduction, on the one hand, as well as many factors and forces that make life more difficult and more competitive.

Let us now look at the multi-cellular organism. The major and most important difference with the single cells, lies in the fact, that a multi-cellular organism can not reproduce itself, any longer, by a simple process of growth and mitotic division. In stead, a multi-cellular organism has to be "re-built" from the ground up. Each time, a sequence of events has to be set into motion, transforming a specialised cell, (a fertilised egg-cell), into a complex colony of cells through the mechanisms of mitotic division. The production of a colony of cells from a single, fertilised egg-cell is similar to the multiplication of single cells, but, then, the members of this colony of embryonic cells begin to differentiate into a variety of organs, developing, eventually, into a small but nearly complete multi-cellular organism.

We will here not go into details, here. There are many reasons, why the sexual mode of producing a fertilised, single egg-cell, together with the mitotic reconstruction of a multi-cellular embryo, came into being. One of the consequences of this form of reproduction is the remarkable fact, that, the older organism, after it has contributed to the processes of procreation, is, in essence, "expendable". The chain of evolutionary continuity is now taken-over by the younger generations, but, in the behaviourally flexible animals, the older or parental generations remain important for a prolonged period of time because of the remarkably long period needed by behaviourally flexible youngsters to develop into adulthood and obtain adequate viability.

The evolution of the multi-cellular animal, together with its reliance upon "the hunt" to fulfill its existential requirements under an obligatory predatory mode of existence, explain the bodily organisation, its behaviour-patterns, the special and general sense-organs, as well as the existence of this "neurological computer"; the brain. Certainly, life and all its manifestations have become enormously complex, when we look at the way the behaviourally flexible animals have to secure their individual survival, as well as the survival of the species, but, the principles that drive or motivate the multi-cellular, behaviourally flexible life-forms, are not all that different from the single cells. The ultimate criterium and objective remains "viability", and, all our bodily and mental capabilities, all our knowledge and learning, all our beliefs, hopes and dreams, as well as our ever varying associations, alliances, fights and disputes, are explainable under the general heading of "the search for a possibility to exist".

Let us look, then, at the human being, and, let us see, what sort of optimum equilibrium one is looking for, and, how a personal drive for survival fits-in, or contrasts with, the demands of being a member of one or other social grouping. The picture is complex, but, I believe that we can unravel it successfully, and, it is possible to gain a useful insight into the mechanisms of human behaviour. We can not mention all the goals man may set for himself at the various stages of his life-cycle, and, we have to resort, therefore, to generalised principles, which will describe, in outline, what sort of goals and ambitions man is likely to form.

If we look at a human being during the earlier stages of his or her existence, we see, that there is no clear-cut long-term planning at all. Youngsters may take a momentary fancy to this or to that, but, before the onset of puberty, we do not really see any significant evidence for long-term planning, and, even, during and after puberty, a fairly large number of people fail to formulate clear-cut objectives. This leads to a rather amorphous way of life. Such people do not accomplish much. They are likely to remain in their local environment and the class they have been born into, and, they drift from one situation to another, trying to survive without any clear-cut ideas about the meaning of life, or the nature of the social environment. However, let us concentrate on the more intelligent and ambitious members of mankind. These people have the greatest impact upon us, because they are likely to occupy a position of power and responsibility.

We see, that the intelligent youngster is just as vulnerable as all the others to the traumas of disappointment and unfair treatment, and, unless the intelligent youngster has the good fortune to receive intuitively wise guidance, protection and leadership, it will not be possible to develop talents adequately, and, even, the most intelligent youngster can become a social cripple or out-cast, unable to make a contribution to the well-being of man and his societies.

There is, indeed, a tight correlation between mental and physical requirements for the "normal" development of a youngster. It means, that the basic requirements have to be adequately fulfilled, and, that the young individal has to receive a reasonable measure of support, protection, stimulation and encouragement, in order to become a healthy, well-integrated and contributory member of the social environment.

However, the "adequate youngster" will experience, from an early age, that there are limits to his demands for attention and gratification. The happy and healthy youngster grows-up in an environment, where the behaviour of the adults is reasonably stable. There are no serious tensions or frequent fights; no wildly fluctuating moods or ambivalent attitudes of the parents towards each other, or, towards their children. No exaggerated affection one moment, and neglect or abandonment the next.

Healthy youngsters grow in relatively stable circumstances. At least, if there are troubles and difficulties, these difficulties are caused by the circumstances in which the community finds itself, and, they are not due to erratic, egocentric and confused behaviour-patterns of the parents themselves. Happy youngsters learn the code of common-sense at an early age. They learn, that they have to share with others; that everyone has the same rights and privileges, (at least, those, who are socially equals), and, they are able to accept the fact, that the admonitions and behaviour-patterns of their parents are as stable and wise as the circumstances permit.

And yet, we know, that ideal parental circumstances do not necessarily provide the best developed youngsters. In part, we do not know, as yet, what really constitutes an ideal set of circumstances for the development of youngsters. It may well be, that the households of those, who occupy a prominent and exemplary position in the community, do not necessarily qualify as the best, in spite of the prestige and admiration these parents may enjoy from their social environment.

It may well be, that the less conspicuous citizens, who are just considered to be "average" by others, provide a more stable and stimulating environment, without the subtle tensions and distortions that occur, so easily, in the more prominent house-holds. There, we see an ever-present danger, that the offspring from prominent citizens are either "spoiled" by a privileged position, or, they are put under an additional and essentially unfair stress, as parents try to avoid spoiling their offspring in an over-zealous effort to correct an inborn position of advantage and privilege.

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Chapter 4

Content

Rating the environmental stimuli for a youngster.
Why the outcome of a personality development is still difficult to predict.
The "pluri-potentiality" of a young child.
The draw-backs of a poorly balanced personality development.
Finding a place in the social environment.
A widening gap between performance and ambition.
An increase in the complexity of goal-patterns.
The tendency to consolidate during maturity.
When we are "over the hill".
Learning to manage the level of stress we have to cope with.
There are many forms of stress.
When the cerebral computer program still has to be written.
A gradual development of the faculty of conscious awareness.
Unfolding the faculty of speech.
Defining alertness.
Is the infant "less human"?
An infant is exposed to different forms of stress, compared to an older child.
The perception of "pain".
When crying is still a "reflex behaviour-pattern", rather than an expression of "suffering".
The origins of "psychological stress".
All behavioural reactions involving the "software program" of the cerebral computer are psychological in nature.
A helpful summary of the nature of human existence.
The development of the young infant.
The first evidence for psychological mechanisms.
Patterns of recognition.
Defining the experience of "frustration".
We show an essentially "blind" search for as much gratification or attention as we can get.
The need to become aware of limits and limitations.
The "temper tantrum".

Eventually, we will have a much better idea, how to rate the environmental stimuli in which a child grows-up, and it may, then, be easier to see a clear-cut correlation between the potentials of a child, and the way these potentials are unfolding. We are, still, largely in the dark about the really significant factors that affect a child's development, and, we still are not able to distinguish the features that are are due to genetic influences from those that are due to environmental stimuli.

At the present time, we have to be content with the reality that it is difficult to predict the outcome of a child's development, and, it is equally difficult to measure its potential at various stages of development. We can only be surprised, as we see some youngsters fail miserably, who should have made it because of talent and ideal circumstances, and, vice versa, sometimes, we see youngsters develop surprisingly well, in spite of serious social and psychological handicaps.

At the present time, we should merely say, that there must be a number of, as yet, poorly defined factors and circumstances at work. These factors and circumstances determine, whether or not a youngster is growing-up into a socially acceptable adult with a reasonably balanced development of its varied potentials.

We have discussed the concept that a young child is "pluri-potential". This means, that there are many more talents than can be fully developed. As a rule, the more common talents come to the fore in everyone, but, on occasion, especially, in sensitive and somewhat privileged families, there is a temptation to develop, at a very early age, an artistic or athletic talent to an exceptional degree. This may easily lead to an imbalance in the development of the personality, because the "security" or acceptance of such an individual is, then, going to rest, solely, on his or her performance in this particular field of talent, rather than on the development of the peronality as a whole.

There are clearly disadvantages for too early a development of a highly specific or specialistic talent. On the other hand, the maximum performance of a talented youngster, in whatever field, does require a long and arduous training, and, this long period of training and development must go, at least, to some extent, at the expense of a more balanced development of the personality. Extra-ordinarily talented people, especially those, whose talents have been developed from an early age, are, therefore, "somewhat different" people, when compared to the rest of us.

Growing-up into an adolescent and adult, means, that we have to find a place in the social environment, and, if we live in a modern and sophisticated society, we know, that, many employment opportunities, especially those, which are financially and intellectually attractive, require a long period of study and training, where a premium is placed upon the ability to learn quickly. Yet, as a rule, this emphasis develops gradually during the later stages of secondary education, and, because of the fact, that a significant percentage of the class is going to seek further education after high-school, we do not see, so easily, this "elitist" emphasis on a very high standard of performance, as we see in those exceptional individuals, who reach for an artistic or athletic career.

Because we have to learn to stand on our own feet, and find a place, somewhere, in society, it is logical, that, during the period of adolescence, the gap in performance and ambition widens between young people. Many young people seem to be driven, primarily, by their physiological and sexual development, and, their sphere of ambitions is centered around contacts with the opposite sex, as well as the need to start building a family, if such contacts have been "physiologically successful".

It seems fair to say that the period of adolescence is, indeed, characterised by a remarkable increase in the complexity of goal-patterns, which are still centered around the major but basic objectives of human existence, such as the fulfilment of physiological and psychological drives, as well as the drive to find security and acceptance in society. This means, that there is a curious mix of goal-patterns. In the affluent, amorphous, self-centered societies of "the West", we see an emphasis on "personal success" during the period of schooling and training. The youngsters learn and develop their talents in order to compete successfully for the highest paying and most prestigious jobs.

In a social environment that is socially much more aware of the need to develop attitudes and skills that are going to be of benefit to society as a whole, we see a much greater emphasis on the fact, that young people have to make a contribution to society, because they owe their opportunities to develop themselves to the anonymous contributions of countless people in their social environment.

During adulthood, we see a continuation of these trends. If the atmosphere or work-environment is highly competitive, we see, quickly, how all the surplus elan-vital is channeled into building-up a career. Soon, however, the energies needed just to maintain a certain level, are absorbing the entire "output", and, we see a period of consolidation. Eventually, our performance suffers, because experience can not continue to compensate for the reluctance to learn new things and adapt to changing circumstances. A period of decline sets in, and, the hold upon a position in society is weakened by the impatient crowding of the younger generations, eager to step into the shoes of the old guard.

The time when such a change-over to a younger generation becomes likely or necessary, depends, of course, on the nature of the job. If we look at the performance of a figure-skater, we see, how a twenty-five year old can be a "has been", as he or she is replaced from the top spot by a younger contender. On the other hand, if we look at the world of politics or a Party-hierarchy, we see, that men in their late sixties or seventies are just beginning to reach the "top spot", and, anyone younger is not really in contention.

The goals of people reflect, therefore, the stage in their life-cycle, as well as the type of career and position they occupy in society. This should give us a framework for the discussion of the various forces and drives to which we are subjected, as well as the adjustments and attitudes of resignation, which play such an important role in the management of "stress". Let us remember, that the level of stress includes, not only, the level of "conscious stress", but, it represents the sum-total of the physiological, psychological and social forms of stress that make their influence felt.

Let us start the discussion at the beginning of our life-cycle. The newborn infant is merely a "bundle of reflexes", as we have explained on previous occasions. The central nervous system is largely incomplete, and, many important systems are not functioning as yet, but, all the reflexes needed to survive are there. The infant will fall contently asleep, when dry, warm and well-fed, but, if something is amiss, it can only cry indiscriminately to indicate that something is wrong. There is no evidence that the child recognises, or "knows", anything, and, it seems quite justified to say, that the cerebral "computer program" still has to be "written". As a matter of fact, the cerebral "hardware", or the neurological path-ways, are not ready, as yet, to receive all the neural impulses, representing the numerous sense impressions an individual is subjected to.

Therefore, it seems safe to say, that there is no "consciousness" in the way a somewhat older child begins to become consciously aware of some sense impressions, as it starts to recognise familiar faces and expresses the recognition of a comforting familiarity with a smile.

This specifically human form of conscious awareness develops slowly, and, it is paralleled by the development of speech. The absence of consciousness, or, rather, the absence of "verbalisable consciousness", is sometimes confused with the concept of "alertness". Alertness means, that an organism is ready to receive a large number of sense-impressions from the environment, and, it means, that such an organism will use all its faculties to arrive at the best possible response. The state of alertness is, therefore, not dependent upon the faculty of verbalisable consciousness. In the human being, the state of alertness is, indeed, nearly always associated with the ability to speak. If such is not the case, we are dealing with an abnormality.

The fact that conscious awareness develops only gradually, probably beginning, very slowly, within a few weeks after birth, does not mean, that the infant is "less human" than an older child or an adult. All the potentials for becoming a normal human being are there, from the moment of conception. We should also emphasise the fact, that it is erroneous to believe, that human life begins at the time of conception, because the sex cells are alive, and human, even, before they form a fertilised egg-cell. However, from this moment on, the fertilised egg-cell acquires the potental to develop into a full-fledged member of the species.

However, the absence of all forms of psychological awareness, means, that an infant is subjected to different forms of stress, compared to the older child. The infant is subjected to a variety of physical and physiological forms of stress, and, it can be uncomfortable, when it is wet, cold or too hot. There is good evidence to assume, that it feels pain, and, that the path-ways for the perception of pain are fully operational at the time of birth. Nevertheless, our perception of pain is so intricately inter-woven with all sorts of psychological factors, (such as the expectation of experiencing pain, expressed as a profound anxiety, tension, and, perhaps, a heightened sensitivity to pain), that it is difficult for us to imagine what sort of pain sensation is felt by an infant. There does not seem to be a great deal of difference between being uncomfortable and having pain. Once a certain threshold has been reached, the infant will start to cry, and it seems, that it can just as easily start to cry at the top of its voice for what seems to be a rather minor nuissance, compared to something that would definitely be experienced as pain by adults.

It seems, that the crying of an infant is a reflex type of behaviour, that is either switched on or off. If it is switched on, for one reason or another, it may easily reach a maximum intensity, and, the child does not stop immediately after the source of pain or irritation has been removed. It often cries, until it has exhausted itself and falls asleep. Besides, a crying spell can also be elicited by the mere fact that it is not picked-up, especially, if a child has "learned", that it can "demand" being picked-up by crying loudly.

Crying by an infant, is, therefore, a rather crude and undifferentiated reflex response to some sort of discomfort or stress, and, the first psychological functions and psychological forms of stress occur, whenever an infant is being "frustrated" in its anticipation of being picked-up. Therefore, it seems fair to state, that, during the first few weeks of its life, the newly born infant is only subjected to uncomfortable or painful stimuli of a physical nature, but, as soon as it has learned its first mechanisms of anticipation, e.g., to be picked up when it cries, we see the beginnings of "psychological stress".

Let us first define, however, the area of psychological mechanisms, so that we can differentiate between uncomfortable and harmful stimuli of a physical nature, and those perceptions of pain or discomfort, which are, at least, in part, due to acquired or learned mechanisms of anticipation.

Psychological mechanisms are behavioural responses that are based on learned or acquired patterns of anticipation, and, these responses are, therefore, dependent upon the content of our experiences or memory-banks. In other words; whatever memory-traces or experiences have been acquired during the existence of an individual, form, together, the "content", or "software program", for the cerebral computer. Perhaps, it is reasonable to say, that all behavioural reactions that involve the software program of the cerebral computer, are psychological in nature, even, if a lot of this software program does not exist as conscious awarenesses, but, has settled into the zone of the sub-conscious.

In this definition, we see, that, all behavioural reactions due to genetically patterned path-ways, are not psychological in nature, but physical or physiological behaviour-patterns that are, largely, of a reflex nature. Some of these reflexes are so complex, that they are better defined as inborn stereotyped behaviour-patterns.

However, let us not forget; as we grow older, stimuli, that were originally processed along pre-existing, genetically encoded pathways, will also activate a large variety of sensations, memories, anticipations or expectations, and, this alters, profoundly, the original response-pattern. Therefore, almost everything we do and react to in life, has an important psychological component, once we have developed a program of memories, experiences, beliefs and anticipations for our cerebral computer.

This summary, I believe, will be helpful in analysing what is happening in an infant. As long as there is no cerebral computer program, we see a variety of physiological reflexes at work, which may or may not be associated with a physiological sensation of pain or discomfort. However, even, these reflexes are incomplete, because, not only is the cerebral computer program absent, but, the computer hardware, so to speak (the neurological path-ways), are still being built, in particular, those path-ways, which will mediate the finely coordinated movements of the body musculature as the infant grows into a youngster.

The infantile crying response is, therefore, a true reflex. It does not have any shades of expression or mechanisms of control. Initially, it is only activated by physical stimuli, but, as soon as the infant develops the ability to recognise a familiar face, we see, that the first phase of cerebral programming has begun. After a few weeks, the continuous stream of sensory stimuli to which the infant is exposed ever since birth, (and, perhaps, to some extent, prior to birth), has led to the ability to differentiate between a familiar face, a familiar way of being picked-up, and, a face, a voice, or a behaviour-pattern that is "strange". This differentiation has important consequencs, because the recognition of a familiar "event", the appearance of face, voice, hands and movements, is now being associated with something pleasant, and, one of the first ways to express well-being and a pleasant anticipation, is the smile; the looking-around in an apparent state of contentness; the absence of crying, etc.

In a way, we are dealing, here, with one of the first psychological mechanisms, and, this form of learning has all the characteristics of a conditioned reflex. In a conditioned reflex, there is no fixed pathway between a stimulus and a response, but a non-specific stimulus, (here, the act of being picked-up), leads consistently to a pleasant experience; being fed, being changed, fondled, etc.

Soon, the infant "recognises" the beginning of this pleasant sequence of events, and, the recognition of the initial stages of a particular sequence, leads to a strong, if "automatic", anticipation of the rest of this sequence. Therefore, every time the infant sees a familiar face, as well as other familiar attributes, it expects the whole sequence to unfold itself. Every time it experiences indeed the entire sequence, this element of expectation has been re-enforced, and, therefore, it becomes increasingly likely, that the occasional non-occurrence of this sequence of events, leads to a strong enough sensation of "frustration" to trigger the crying reflex. This crying reflex is enhanced, if the infant experiences that this "act" of crying will bring-about, belatedly, the desired and expected sequence.

Frustration is the blockage of an expected sequence of events, leading to a pleasant goal; a satisfaction or gratification of some sort. If an unpleasant sequence of events is blocked, we experience, of course, a "sigh of relief", as the mounting tensions of anxiety are suddenly released, or, at least, "eased".

There is good evidence to believe, that the human infant will "blindly" seek to get as much gratification or attention as it can get, and, we have seen, that, picking-up the child every time it cries, re-enforces its expectations, but, it also strengthens the feelings of frustration, if its expectations are not being fulfilled.

"Is "frustration" not a form of stress, and should we not behave in such a way, that our youngsters experience as little as possible this ugly stress of frustration?", you may ask. This is a legitimate question, because we have good reasons to believe, that strong frustrations hamper the growth of the personality, and may lead to neurotic behaviour-patterns. Let us analyse this question in detail, because we are dealing, here, with a fundamentally important attitude towards the up-bringing of the younger generation. We should also discuss the various aspects of "frustration" and define "neurotic behaviour".

Yes, it is true, that frustration is a form of "blockage", where expectations are not met by the experience of reality, but, I am convinced that it is beneficial to experience, at least, a measure of "frustration", especially, during our earlier years. Just as the maximum possible level of beneficial stimuli is far from beneficial to an individual organism, so is a constant or maximum level of psychological gratification, together with the fulfilment of all expectations, far from beneficial for the development of our personality.

Just because the human being is a "flexible animal", it means, that our behaviour-patterns have to be shaped by experience. We know, how important the input of personal experiences is for an adequate shaping of our response-patterns. If a young child or infant would experience a constant, or, nearly constant gratification of its wishes and demands, it develops, quickly, a remarkable dependence upon such a high level of gratification. This means, that, any attempt to break this habit of relying upon instant gratification, will be felt as an increasingly severe form of stress, because the infant or child has come to rely upon it to such a large extent. Quickly, we reach the stage, that such a child will react with the maximum possible resistance to such a "blockage" of its expectations, and, it will throw a "temper tantrum". This is a completely uninhibited and all-out effort to gain access to the expected gratification, even, if it is such a simple act as being picked-up or given attention.

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Chapter 5

Content

The behaviour of sensible parents.
Establishing a stable and comforting routine.
An atmosphere of steadfastness, reliability and security.
The attitude of "over-attention".
Mechanisms of "natural wisdom".
The detrimental consequences of "poverty".
The need for a constant stream of mental stimuli.
The difference between "stimulating" and "stressful" conditions.
A look at the best conditions for developing the potential of behavioural flexibility.
When social limits of tolerance are "soft".
The ability to recognise and avoid obstacles.
When the social environment is "too restrictive".
A vague and elusive balance between stimulating and restraining factors.
A review of the development of the human personality.
When the demands and expectations of the social environment become a burden.
When people "soar" in their career.
The average personality.
Great Expectations.
We are fortunate, when we can enter adolescence with a large number of dreams and expectations.
The final "crystallisation" of the personality.
Remaining flexible for as long as we can.

We need to learn, from an early age, that there is a limit to the fulfillment of our demands, and, this is the reason, why the natural common-sense of concerned but busy parents, is such a valuable asset. The common-sense parents will certainly check if their baby is allright, but if nothing is amiss, they will let it cry, untill it has exhausted itself and falls asleep. Yet, by making sure, that all its needs are provided for and that it gets fondled, stimulated and fed at regular or near-regular intervals, the sensible parents provide a stable and comforting routine for the infant.

We appreciate, still, only vaguely, how important such a regular, comforting and well-balanced routine is for the growing personality. In stead of learning, that all its wishes are immediately satisfied, the child gets used to a rythm of care an attention. In stead of relying on immediate gratification, it learns, that it may not get satisfaction, now, but, it will surely get attention later, and, the whole "outlook" or atmosphere is one of steadiness, reliability and security. This shift away from immediate gratification towards a steady routine, gives the child a sense of steadfastness, as well as an appreciation for the fact, that the environment will tolerate its wishes and demands, only, up to a certain point.

We see, here, the outline, or the "range", of tolerated behaviour, where a child comes-up against "limitations". The acceptance of a range of tolerance within which acceptable behaviour has to stay, makes the youngster willing to accept other limitations as well, such as the need to share affection and attention, food, or toys, etc. In short, I am convinced, that this common-sense attitude of parents, who, intuitively or pragmatically, recognise the simple fact that they can not spend all their time with one child, introduces, automatically, one of the most important "socialising" experiences for the young individual. This experience is, probably, one of the main factors, determining, whether or not a child will become "socially acceptable".

If an attitude of over-attention, or "spoiling", is detrimental for the future social integration of a child, so is the attitude of ambivalence or negligence even more harmful to its developing personality. We are becoming more aware of the fact, that a certain routine of care, stimulation, fondling and attention is crucially important to avoid an excessive arousal of defensive mechanisms, and, these insights were, at least in part, responsible for the fact, that it was thought wise to give a child as much attention as possible. Now, we know, that the sensible balance adopted by "natural" parental behaviour, is, in essence, the optimum level of care and attention a child can receive.

Certainly, if a family is "too large", and, if the parents are swamped with chores, or live in a state of poverty and chronic stress, the level of care may easily drop below the minimum requirements, and, the children may become somewhat neglected. This may not come to the fore as "behaviour problems", however, because, even, in poor and over-crowded families, the level of stimulation and the bonds of solidarity are often strong enough to make such families well-integrated social units. However, in view of what can be obtained in the development of human potential and social acceptability, an up-bringing in poverty may act as a hindrance for later efforts to fulfill certain potentials to the maximum, or, to advance beyond the social stratum of one's class. However, the "fault" does not lie, here, with the techniques of parental up-bringing, but, on the conditions of poverty under which large numbers of people, (many hundreds of millions of people, all over the world), have to live and bring-up their offspring.

The point we want to emphasise, here, is the fact, that "stress" is nothing more, and nothing less, than the common denominator of all those stimuli, be they internal or external, which pose a "challenge" to the individual and his society, and, which drive an individual or a community away from a comfortable equilibrium.

Too much of any type of stimulus, is harmful, but, a mild challenge or stress is needed to keep our faculties alive and well, because all our faculties have developed under the stimulus of stress; nl., the struggle for survival. It should not surprise us, therefore, that we also require a mental challenge, because mental stimuli are, in essence, reacted-to in the same manner. In essence, mental stimuli are the same as the stimuli we react to by "physical", reflex or subconscious mechanisms. Strongly stressful stimuli are highly uncomfortable, painful, or, even, life-threatening, be they physical or psychological in nature, but, a mild dose of stressful stimuli for body and mind, is needed to develop into a healthy, flexible and socially well-integrated individual.

Let us conclude our discussion about the experiences of stress at an early age, by showing, that the establishment of a comforting routine and the setting of limits to wants and desires, provide, not only, the foundation for socially integrated behaviour, but, the experience of limitations is also essential for developing the faculty of behavioural flexibility. Just as a flexible animal in nature learns to recognise the obstacles and conditions it can not change, so does the human being need a series of experiences, where it learns, that it has come-up against "limits". If human beings experience from an early age, that the "social limits of tolerance" are "soft", and, that these limits can be "pushed aside" by force, e.g., by whining, persistent nagging, or the throwing of a temper-tantrum, then, a child does not learn to use its potential for flexible behaviour-patterns. Just as an animal would not be very viable, if it kept hitting itself against obstacles, so is the human being, who tries, constantly, to push its way past the limits set by others, not a very flexible or intelligent personality.

As soon as such a "handicapped child" has to maintain him- or herself in a much larger social environment that falls outside the "soft" family environment, he or she has to learn, the hard way, that a large number of its behaviour-patterns are not acceptable. Therefore, socially acceptable and intelligent behaviour is closely related to the ability to recognise obstacles, and, to avoid or circumvent them, rather than to attack, stubbornly and persistently, such obstacles. Clearly, the child, who learns from a young age to be pliable, to respect authority, to fit into a mold of socially acceptable behaviour, has an advantage over a child that has not learned to do so.

We may also see the other extreme. Some children grow-up in such a rigid and severe environment, that they do not dare to show any initiative, because they are afraid to be rebuffed, reprimanded or laughed at, but, in our permissive, chaotic and socially fragmented societies, such a parental attitude is exceptional, and, it is limited to isolated religious groupings and sects that stand outside the main-stream of life.

As always, the optimum level of "constraint" is vague and difficult to delineate with precision, but, we can state, in general terms, the objectives that should be sought, or looked for, when rearing children. There should be a careful, comforting and adequate routine of care, stimulation, protection and affection, which allows a relatively care-free, happy, exciting and varied childhood. On the one hand, the child is brought-up to respect authority, and, to recognise the need for authority, but, it is also encouraged to develop its initiatives and talents, as long as there is a good understanding of the reasons, why certain activities and inclinations may come into conflict with the wishes and desires of other people.

Within these limitations, it should not be too difficult to bring-up children in such a way, that they are flexible, spontaneous, energetic and full of initiative, and, yet, socially concerned, respectful of auhority, and without strong feelings of resentment or alienation. True, in actual practice, it is difficult to judge, whether or not a paticular mode of bringing-up children has been successful. Our concepts and ideas are still so confused and contradictory, that it seems far wiser to rely upon the natural common-sense and intuitive wisdom of healthy and well-integrated parents, and, let them bring-up their children without any preconceptions.

Let us follow a child through childhood, adolescence and into early adulthood, and, let us review, in general outlines, the many levels or forms of stress that may occur. The world of contact is constantly being enlarged, and, the individual feels the pressures of physical and psychological maturation, as well as the need to find a place in society. One of the main features of human existence is a constant stream of sense-impressions that have to be categorised, classified and digested. We develop, therefore, throughout childhood and adolescence, an ever growing base of experiences and memories, and, slowly, a complicated structure of beliefs develops, which lets us orden all these awarenesses and experiences into a framework of coherent relationships.

At the same time, we experience, constantly, the drives of our own existence. We need attention and affection, or, even love and prestige from our social environment. We need to do well. We have to respond to the demands and expectations from the social environment, because we need an adequate level of performance in order to feel wanted and accepted by our social environment.

However, sometimes, the demands and expectations from the social environment become a burden, and, they may interfere, to some extent, with the way we want to live, and, we may want to withdraw from society, as soon as we get a chance. This may lead to disappointment and incomprehension from the people around us, but, in our affluent societies, people soon forget, as each one of us is absorbed by a constant flow of events and happenings. Some people adapt quite well to the demands of society, and, they place an increasing reliance upon the seal of public approval, as they soar in their career as a politician, a popular artist, or, some other career that involves a nearly constant inter-action with "the public".

Most of us remain, somewhere, in between. We are not completely absorbed by the wishes or trends of public opinion, but, neither, have we completely withdrawn from society, because, after all, we have a living to make, a family to feed, bills to pay. We have contacts with our society through the work environment, as well as our friends and acquaintances, but, we also have a shell of privacy, and, we pursue a way of life, and, we adopt a belief or attitude that is not completely in line with fashionable public opinion, but is more likely to be identified with a particular grouping within the larger social environment.

We have hinted on the ultimate objective of adequate social integration as an adult, because the tensions and feelings of uncertainty we experience as a child or adolescent, are, to a large extent, due to the fact, that our beliefs and attitudes are still "being formed". We are still flexible, and, we can still choose what we want to become. Because our beliefs and attitudes, as well as our role in society, have not crystallised as yet, we are still forming long-term goal-patterns. Logically, our expectations are numerous, and, they often take the form of "great dreams", but, high expectations lead, invariably, to severe disappointments, and, it is probably fair to say, that we all have to adjust our expectations throughout life.

We are fortunate, indeed, if we are able to enter adolescence with a large number of dreams and expectations, and, it takes a while to learn, which expectations can be realised, and, which turn-out to be irrealistic and untenable. Again others fade in importance, as soon as they come nearer to fruition.

A persistent and complex pattern of goals that remain a viable and realistic objective, delays the final "crystallisation" of a personality, as well as his or her position in society. Indeed, people, who are fortunate enough to be able to remain dreamers and ambitious goal-climbers for a long period of time, remain somewhat "child-like", or, at least, they remain somewhat adolescent in the eyes of those, who have lost, at a much earlier age, their range of options.

Certainly, people, who become socially well-integrated at an early age, often "crystallise" early. This is primarily due to the fact, that they reach at an early stage in life a "dead-end" position, from where it is difficult, or, even, impossible to "escape" or advance. If such people look with a certain disdain on the immaturity of those, who can still dream of reaching all sorts of goals, we can also detect an element of envy, as well as a vague recognition of the fact, that, their own lack of ambition and perseverence is, at least, partly, responsible for the limited social and professional mobility they find themselves in.

Let us come back to the fact, that, throughout childhood, adolescence and, even, into early adulthood, most members of society are flexible enough that they can still change their conditions of existence. They can still change jobs, the line of work, or the way they live. This creates, necessarily, a flexible and rather extensive pattern of expectations, and, these expectations are all subject, at least, potentially, to the stress of frustration and disappointment, but, they may also serve as a valuable rallying point to organise our lives and put some self-discipline into our life-style.

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Chapter 6

Content

The "neurotic blockage".
Later, we may understand the reasons, why we failed.
When collective frustrations, or "taboos", become "the norm".
The neurotic suppression of unpleasant experiences.
Delusions and obsessions.
We all vary in the way we interpret reality.
Vague boundaries between normal and abnormal perceptions of reality.
A reality perception that "does not make sense" to the social surroundings, is, by definition, "mentally diseased".
The perception of reality is a complex phenomenon.
The function of a persistent "bias" in the interpretation of our sense impressions.
When there is a break-down in the perception of reality.
The phenomenon of a psychological "rejection".
Ambivalent attitudes towards handicapped off-spring.
The concepts of individual and social health, normality and disease touch upon each other in a confusing manner.
Learning to live with disappointments.
A continuous exposure to stressful conditions.
We become more "seasoned", as we get older.
Avoiding a cynical and socially destructive attitude.
The fine line between realism and opportunism.
Retaining a quiet faith in the forces of "goodness".
A psychological shield of ambitions and long-term expectations.
The possibilities for "becoming" are falling-away, one by one.
When we are becoming irrelevant to our social surroundings.
How to regain a measure of productivity.
The limitations of a strenuous life-style.
The many forms of chronic stress in a modern, affluent society.

Because the human being is subjected to a number of drives, and will always experience some limitations to his desire for gratification, it is unavoidable, that we all experience frustrations from time to time. Most of us are able to "shake off" such experiences, and, we recognise, that it is justified that we can not have everything we want. Then, the frustration subsides, because we are able to control our instinctive drives.

However, it may be, that we do not understand, why a particular ambition or goal has been "blocked", and, we may try harder and harder to achieve something, especially, if the goal is seen as a socially desirable accomplishment. Then, the frustration may become deep, and, we may develop an exaggerated feeling of awe or mystique for the goal that has eluded us from an early age. For a long time, we may not understand the reason for our failure, and, we remain somewhat nostalgic about a particular skill, position or profession.

Later, we may understand the reasons, why we failed, and, we may acknowledge the fact, that we did not have the insight to solve the problems that laid behind the obstacles, or, we acknowledge, that we did not have sufficient discipline and will-power to listen to the advise of others, or, we may realise, that our goals were somewhat shallow, etc. Then, we come to grips with this frustration, and it slowly subsides.

If we talk about the social limitations to certain forms of behaviour, we see, that the acceptance of this sort of "frustration" becomes "normal". Everyone will react more or less in the same way, if a "taboo" is violated, and, the behaviour of restraint, together with the emotions when a particular norm has been breached, become characteristic of a particular culture or social environment. However, it is possible, especially, in socially chaotic or amorphous environments, to experience widely different guidelines from family to family, or, more commonly, from one sub-culture to the next.

Sometimes, a youngster has a particularly unpleasant experience, perhaps, of a sexual or sex-related nature, and, this experience may not be "digested" properly. Because of the painful confusion associated with the memory of such an experience, it is "deeply suppressed" into the subconscious, because, this is the only way the individual knows how to handle it. It is like sweeping a piece of dirt under the rug, whenever one does not have the energy or capability to remove it completely. Just like a piece of dirt swept under the rug, a suppressed experience is easily "forgotten", but, any related or analogous experience may bring this experience again to the fore, and, the similar or analogous experience will evoke strong and confusing emotions, because an individual is, often, not aware, what is happening psychologically. Such a behavioural reaction is felt as strange or abnormal by the social environment, bcause this behaviour-pattern is not shared by others. Here, we see the essence of a "neurotic suppression".

It is also possible, that certain causes and their effects are abnormally emphasised. There are many ways in which our reality perceptions can start to deviate significantly from an "accepted norm". For example, we may consider certain events to have a special or exaggerated significance; at least, the interpretation of certain events may not be generally accepted by the people around us. We are, then, suffering from delusions, or obsessions, but, if the community as a whole becomes "deluded or obsessed", e.g., with the idea, that their enemies are going to start a war, we see, that this behaviour is considered "normal", or, even, "patriotic", in spite of the fact, that the collective behaviour of the entire social environment may be judged as "obsessive" by an outsider.

Sometimes, it is, not only, the interpretation that begins to deviate from accepted norms, but, the perception of the sense impressions themselves becomes altered. If the alteration of the perception of reality is not merely a matter of interpretation, but, if it involves directly a statement of fact, such as hearing or seeing something that can not be heard or seen by others, we are dealing with a severe type of mental illness.

However, there are many variations in the abnormalities of the perception of reality, and, we should remember, first of all, that we all vary, to some extent, in the way we see reality and interpret the meaning of events or sense impressions. However, most of us are quite well aware of the difference between a "certainty", which depends, to a large extent, on the fact, that the people in our environment agree with a certain belief or interpretation, and, this large and shadowy sphere of experiences, where certainty slides into hypothesis and speculation. Indeed, the boundaries between normal and abnormal perceptions of reality are vague, but, as a rule, we can say, that people should be able to agree amongst themselves about the routine, daily realities, and they should be able to communicate sensibly about these realities, giving an aura of "normality" to the behaviour-patterns of the members of a social environment.

If we try to discuss with each other the more fundamental aspects of a perception of reality, we see, that, many differences of a religious, philosophical or political nature come to the fore, in spite of the fact, that people will be able to consider each other as "normal" members of society. Only, if an interpretation becomes highly individualistic, utterly emotional, and not substantiated by logic or agreement within a limited grouping, will we consider such a reality perception to be a sign of a mental illness.

Accepted differences in reality perception range all the way from prejudices, (which we all suffer from, to some extent), to the more severe delusions and obsessive-compulsive behaviour-patterns that are shared by the community we belong to, and, which determine the definition of normality. However, a reality perception that "does not make sense" to the social surroundings of an individual, is, in essence, mentally diseased, in spite of the fact, that the reference of normality, (the social grouping), may be a somewhat arbitrary choice.

We know, now, that the perception of reality is a complex phenomenon, depending upon the "hardware" of the cerebral computer, the state of physical and mental health of an individual and the social environment, as well as on the accumulated content of memories and experiences. Sometimes, we see, clearly, how traumatic or unfortunate experiences have created an abnormal bias in someone's behaviour, and, if we can fully identify with such a bias, we will consider the occurrence of certain phobias, nightmares, excited mental states, obsessions and delusion, as "understandable". Then, we are usually correct to consider the "bias", or the deviation of the normal behaviour pattern, to be psychological in nature and we are fairly certain, that the behavioural alteration is due to a specific sensory input.

On other occasions, the "hardware", (the chemical, physiological or anatomical features of the brain over which the flow of sense impressions is taking place), has been altered by a drug, a toxin, an injury, or a disease process. We see, then, a generalised and often debilitating defect in the perception of reality.

Certainly, it is possible, that severe disturbances in the perception of reality are due to purely "psychological" factors, or "factors of input", such as traumatic experiences, but, it is unlikely, that traumatic experiences alone can explain a total break-down in the perception of reality. Often, there is a propensity or a tendency to be withdrawn, and, such an individual takes, for one reason or another, refuge into a world of fantasy and day-dreaming. Undoubtedly, we see, almost always, a combination of factors at work. Some children are lagging behind, physically, mentally, or both, and, as a result, they are prone to become somewhat neglected, or, even, rejected, especially, in a busy, competitive and "natural" environment.

Rejection is a common occurrence, and, it has a strong biological basis or drive, because we see, throughout nature, including the behaviour of the higher mammals, that newly born members of a litter that are somewhat "behind", are neglected to the point that they do not survive. This solves the problem of the weakling who is a burden to his social environment, and, it solves the problems of over-population, as the parents are not going to look after more offspring than they can handle.

The strongly developed sense of protection in the human species, leads to the survival of most "weaker infants", including those, who are mentally or physically handicapped. Certainly, this is a natural result of a valuable social instinct, but, we should not be blind for the consequences, and, we should not be surprised to see, that parents have strongly ambivalent attitudes towards offspring that is, somehow, not quite "up to par".

It is not surprising, therefore, that youngsters do not receive scrupulously equal attention, and, it is logical, that some grow-up in a state of mild neglect. Because these youngsters feel chronically the stress that they can not quite compete on equal terms with other members in their social environment, there is a tendency to become withdrawn. These youngsters begin to live in a world of fantasy, where primary gratifications are easily obtained by erotic fantasies and self-stimulation. Such children are prone to slide into a world of their own, where it becomes increasingly difficult to make contact with "the real world". Then, the world of the mentally ill and the social outcast, the drug-addict and the criminal, is just around the corner.

Certainly, this is not the only course of events that leads to mental illness, and, there are numerous instances, where an apparently normal and well cared-for youngster becomes "abnormal" and ends-up a mental cripple. As we learn more about the numerous factors that play a role in the definition of normality, as well as in the mechanisms of competitive existence, we will have a better grip on the reality of psychological existence, where individual and social health, as well as the concepts of normality and disease, touch upon each other in a confusing, and, as yet, poorly organised manner.

Let us leave the field of mental illness and return to the world of the growing youngster. We have seen, that this world remains difficult and complex for a long time, as youngsters develop, learn, adapt and change, constantly, the perceptions of the realities around and within them. However, frustrations and disappointments occur for many reasons, and not only, because these young people are uable to realise dreams, ambitions and expectations.

Perhaps, the most poignant source of disillusionment comes in the realm of personal contacts and the disappointment of relationships between friends. In particular, if bonds of trust and loyalty are shattered, we see a severe form of stress develop, because, as we have mentioned on previous occasions, the persistence of some bonds of complete reliance, are the foundation for the feelings of togetherness and security. These emotional bonds and feelings arise well before the more intellectual alliances occur, and, therefore, the bonds of trust and loyalty can be a source of immense strength and happiness, but, they can also become a source of deep sorrow and despair.

There are many other ways our expectations can be shattered. We may feel to have been treated unfairly or unjustly, in violation of an expected and adhered-to code of conduct, or, we may feel to have been criticised unfairly; that there has been an effort to smear our character and reputation, etc., etc. In short; we are continuously exposed to stressful situations where expectations have not been met, and, collectively, all these experiences allow us to develop a better grip upon the nature of man, ourselves, our society, our dreams and ambitions.

As we grow older, our expectations are less often hurt or disappointed, because we have learned to become more realistic. We have scaled-down our ambitions, and, we have reduced the expectations about our fellow human beings. As a shield of defense against getting hurt, there is a great temptation during the later stages of adult life, to become quite cynical; to abandon all expectations; to live simply for ourselves; to survive the best way we know how, and, if we have abandoned a certain code of ethics, a moral stance, or a measure of conviction about the way society should function, we are in danger of becoming a social liability; a parasite, who usurps society and uses his or her experience to extract the maximum possible benefits from the social environment, without giving anything in return.

Unfortunately, such a cynical and socially degrading attitude is often looked-upon as a sign of worldliness and "maturity", especially, in our chaotic, affluent societies, which are laced with many shady and cynical business activities, propagated and carried-out by millions of cynical adults, who "rip-off" the system, because they have lost all long-term ideals and social objectives. Their only goal is to survive, together with their family and dependents. Sometimes, this ruthless, egocentric attitude is translated into a financially exploitative attitude towards society, and, it may also manifest itself in the form of a narrow-minded religiosity, where the only concern has become to "save one's soul for eternity".

Certainly, there is a fine line between becoming more realistic and becoming a negative, useless entity in society. True, the ambitious youngster, full of ideals, may be just as egocentric or detrimental to society as the old man, who has lost all ideals and hides behind a facade of worldliness and an attitude of knowing it all. Nevertheless, it is possible that there is still a quiet faith in the forces of "goodness", and, there may still be the belief, that there is a need to be decent and honest in one's dealings with other people.

Getting older is, in many ways, a chronically painful process, and, we should not forget, that the shield of ambitions and long-term expectations is a valuable aid in remaining flexible. Expectations and dreams make it possible to take disappointments in stride, and, to look forward to the heights that are still to come.

Once this quality of flexibility has disappeared, we can not dream, anymore, about the glorious experiences we may still be looking forward to. Once we realise, that we have reached the pinnacle of our career or social standing, we can not dream, anymore, about the future, but we will be watching, with varying degrees of anxiety, for the signs of "slipping"; of being displaced by a younger competitor. Then, we know, it is going to be a down-hill slide from now on, unless we have made adequate provisions in anticipation of the decline of our professional performance and our financial earning powers.

As we grow older, the possibilities for "becoming" are taken-away, one by one. Each time we make a choice or a decision, we gain the possibility of bringing a particular reality closer to fruition, but, at the same time, alternative pathways of development are irrevocably lost. Once we have reached the stage of late adulthood, even, before there is any evidence for a marked decline in energy and powers, we realise, that our specialised function and position in society are a reward and a security for the hard work we have put-in before, but, at the same time, we are for society what we have become, and, as soon as we lose our professional status or proficiency, we are really of no interest to the rest of society.

Flexibility is gradually being lost, until we realise, that we should be consolidating and protecting what we have. Then, it is possible to become productive again, in spite of a long, steady decline. If we have allowed ourselves to live a life-style that absorbs most of our earnings, we see, clearly, that we have to maintain a fairly hectic and demanding pace of performance in whatever we do, in order to sustain the required cash-flow for our life-style.

Unfortunately, we equate, so easily, our life-style with a measure of social success, and, then, we will consider any slowing-down in spending powers to be a reflection of a declining social status. We become locked into an affluent life-style, which prevents us, by and large, to make adequate provisions for the time we may become ill and have to reduce our work-load. This strenuous life-style tends to stifle our flexibility even more, as it becomes impossible to contemplate a more satisfying, relaxing and educational work-environment that is financially not as rewarding, but may give us a new lease on life.

All these factors form, together, a fairly high level of stress, and, this level of stress is manifested in the frequent temptation to find relaxation in the pub, the club, the drink, or the "affair", straining marital relations even further. Chronic stress has already a tendency to dull marital relations, and the chronic frustration which the spouse of a hard-working, successful professional is put under, tends to manifest itself, also, in an affluent life-style of freely spending the monies that are flowing so easily into the house-hold.

We all know about the many forms of chronic stress that are a hall-mark of modern, affluent life, and, we have argued, on several occasions, how this entrapment into an affluent life-style has been responsible for many stress-related illnesses and behavioural escapades, as well as a chronic lack of concern for the problems of the people around us, or, the plight of the many hundreds of millions of people, who do not even earn enough money to buy sufficient food. We have discussed, before, the pernicious consequences of such a collective attitude of perverse introversion, and, we will not discuss or lament these features again, because the reasons why people tend to make the same mistakes, again and again, are quite clear for all those, who care to look and think.

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Chapter 7

Content

Psychological adaptations to stress that are likely to occur at a more advanced age.
Accepting the inevitable decline in mental and physical powers.
When we are locked into fruitless anxieties.
Why depending on a high level of consumption is a weakness.
Appreciating the time we have left.
The crucial ability to anticipate future trends accurately.
A patient and rational aproach to the inevitability of our own life-cycle.
A natural insight of wisdom and resignation.
Stressful attempts to "overcome" our problems, rather than to accept death gracefully.
The lure of eternal happiness is bought at the price of a life-long anxiety, that we "may not make it".
When we misuse the faculties of fore-sight.
With every gain in viability, there are always potential liabilities.
The inevitability of death and the likelyhood of suffering are a natural result of our ability to construct a sophisticated and wide-ranging reality perception.
Everything becomes a burden for weak and degenerate minds.
The life-cycle of a social entity, or an entire species.

Let us now review, in general terms, the stresses and psychological adaptations that take place with advancing age. The many anxieties raised by the impending decline of physical and mental abilities, as well as the likely decline in social status, slowly give-way to a measure of resignation as the latter part of "middle-age" slides into "old-age". It is somewhat arbitrary to try to define this transition in terms of age-limits or specific symptoms and phenomena, and, even, if we could agree about a way to measure this transition period, we still would see, that, psychologically, the transition would take place at vastly different stages of the chronological age.

The over-riding characteristic of a healthy old-age, is the acceptance of the inevitable decline in mental and physical powers, as well as the ability to appreciate the opportunity for relaxation and reflection, which comes with the relinquishing of a career, a job, a business, or some other position or activity which has been the "end-stage" of a climb in the social hierarchy.

If people fail to antiticipate this normal course of events, or, if they live in a society that does not look well after its senior citizens, we see, that the transition into retirement is, indeed, a period of anxiety and stress. If society does not value its senior citizens, and, if advancing age is only associated with neglect, as well as a loss of income and prestige, it is logical, that people dread the time that they will be old.

There is, often, a marked drop in living standards, in particular, in the affluent societies. This shows us, how a high standard of living, or, rather, a high level of consumption, is a serious liability. It leads to the inability to anticipate a more frugal life-style at a later age, and, it also leads, so often, to entrapment, whenever one has settled into an environment, where the basic costs of housing and food, including other necessities, are extremely expensive; especially, when compared to global standards of affluence. Another reason why a high level of consumption represents a weakness, is the inability to "save" and prepare for old-age and retirement, which is aggravated by the phenomenon of inflation, eroding any incentive to save for a rainy day.

In short, it is not surprising, that, in many affluent societies, where a high level of consumption is the norm, many people dread becoming old and retired. Ironically, they suffer only mildly, compared to global standards, since the income during old-age is, often, still quite substantial and provides, as a rule, easily for the basic necessities.

When we get older, we should be able to appreciate, more clearly, the time that is left to us, and, it is a sign of a mental depression, if we waste our time with feelings of anxiety over the future, as well as feelings of regret over chances missed in the past. If we have been able to adjust and adapt, and, if we have correctly foreseen, what we really need and want with advancing age, the relative freedom from stress, the freedom in time, together with the accumulated experiences of a life-time, may create an atmosphere of quiet wisdom and contentment during retirement.

Actually, we are discussing, here, one of the most essential features of human existence, which goes out far beyond a simple adjustment to the problems of advancing age. We see, here, a crucial faculty of the human mind, which plays an essential role in man's ability to survive, either, individually, or, collectively. This is the ability to project trends into the future from what we see happening around us, today, and, to see the phenomena of today as logical results of trends that began, and were experienced, in the past.

The ability to see trends and happenings in a broad perspective, including the ability to see what old-age will bring, gives us a much more realistic anticipation of the events and happenings we are going to be confronted with in the future. Certainly, the ability to rationally analyse likely trends, together with the ability to see, that, we too, will inevitably get older, probably, sick as well, and, that we have to die, often under highly unpleasant or stressful conditions, is paid-for with the price of anxiety and apprehension. The possibility to avoid a great many events of harm as the result of an increased power of anticipation, is paid-for by the awareness of a great many potentials for the occurrence of such events of harm.

We can adopt two different approaches to the increased awareness of the potential for harmful events. The viable and sensible approach is to digest, calmly, these insights; to study them carefully, and, to remain open to all possibilities offered to minimise possible exposure to stress or unpleasant surprises. Even, if we adopt such a patient and rational approach to the inevitability of our own life-cycle, we may come to the conclusion, that many aspects of it are unavoidable. Then, the art of acceptance and resignation comes into play. We know, that we are getting older, and, we know, that we are likely to contract a serious illness. We know, that, even the healthiest and luckiest individuals eventually die.

Why fight this inevitability? Is it not possible to see the wisdom of nature in such a sequence of events? Is it so difficult to realise, that this cycle of birth, life, growth, decline and death, has made our own existence possible? Why, then, should we object to the fact, that, inevitably, the time will come, that, we, too, will have to pass-on?

This natural insight of wisdom and resignation does not even have to be supported by religious hopes and promises. As a matter of fact, I believe, as I have argued before, that religious beliefs are, often, a rather strenuous and stressful attempt to "overcome", rather than accept, the inevitability of death, as we see in the imagery of "eternal life". Let us stop and think for a while, and, let us consider, how realistic such an imagery is in view of our modern scientific insights, and, let us also review, calmly and objectively, what sort of stresses and fears these religious promises and reality perceptions bring with them.

It seems, that the lure of eternal happiness and salvation is bought at the price of an intense, life-long anxiety, whether or not we will "make it". Besides, such a strenuous emphasis upon personal salvation, together with the conquest of death by an imagery of eternal after-life, tends to emphasise a strongly egocentric orientation in our religious behaviour, in spite of the fact, that the objectives of most religious teachings include a lessening of this egocentric orientation.

However, this is an aside. Let us come back to the fact, that, rational analysis of past experiences, as well as a clear perception of contemporary trends, show us many ways of predicting, fairly accurately, what sort of circumstances we are likely to encounter in the future. It also means, that we have to be able to accept, realistically, the likelyhood, that many experiences in our future are going to be stressful and unpleasant. True, it creates a feeling of anxiety, thinking about future hardships, but, we solve nothing by suppressing such thoughts and anticipations.

Suppression, means, a temporary suppression of the associated feelings of anxiety and confusion, and, of course, what we really want is a cessation of these feelings of anxiety. However, such a short-sighted and essentially neurotic attitude is dearly paid-for. We become less able to anticipate, correctly, what sort of situations we will have to cope with, and, an increased number of "surprises" is going to interfere with our ability to cope and adapt, and, eventually, it will jeopardise our ability to survive.

It is logical to see, that a deliberate "misuse" of our faculties of foresight, leads to a loss in viability, because, after all, natural selection would not have developed, and sharpened, the faculties of conscious insight and accurate foresight, if it would not have been a successful tool in the struggle for survival. For every gain in viability, there are always potential liabilities, and, the criteria of viability are often characterised by this precarious balance between advantages and disadvantages, which is associated with the development of a particular possibility of existence.

The mental and intellectual tools of conscious thought and awareness have led to an unprecedented enlargement of the sphere of concerns, and, these awarenesses have given us the ability to see our personal and collective history in a broad perspective. This broad perspective, together with the precision of detail that comes with a detailed analysis of a more narrowly focussed attention, has given us the possibility to come to a type of reality perception that far surpasses the faculties of any other species.

This broad and firm grasp over the realities around us, is directly responsible for the great manipulative powers we have acquired. No wonder, then, that such a sophisticated reality perception has also led to a sophisticated way of anticipating what is going to happen. This is the reason, why we have become so much aware of the inevitability of death, as well as the likelyhood of disease and decline with advancing age.

In a way, it is a sign of a softened and confused generation or social environment, if the natural anxieties, associated with an increased level of fore-sight, become such a burden, that anxieties and fore-sight are suppressed together. This shows us, again, how fragile these faculties are, and, how easily a generation, born in soft and affluent conditions, loses the insight, that it has to continue contributing to the viability of its existence.

Everything bcomes a burden for weakened and degenerate generations; from giving birth, to rearing children; from working and cleaning-up, to thinking straight and anticipating realistically. Softened and degenerated generations dream-away their time with idle and egocentric pursuits, while the viability of social and individual existence, is dwindling.

Yet, we can interpret these events, also, in a broader perspective. It can be interpreted as one more indication, that the society of man can be considered a "living entity". If it is living, it will show the events of being born, going through a period of vigorous childhood and adolescence, stagnation in maturity, and decline in old-age.

Let us come back to the concepts of stress. Let us define stress for the living organisation in more general terms, and, let us look, then, again, at the question, what sort of relevance these concepts or phenomena have for our ability to survive. We need to concern ourselves with the problems of long-term survival, because man's manipulative abilities have interfered, not only, with the balance of nature and the conditions of terrestial existence, but, also, with the mechanisms of procreation. Manipulative abilities have given us the "joys of sex", without the responsibility for offspring, but, it has also given us the ability to commit suicide as a species.

.......

Chapter 8

Content

The ability to "flow" around obstacles.
The essence of "fluidity".
Sensory mechanisms.
For some forms of stress we have not developed "sensory capabilities".
The nature of a comfortable equilibrium.
We are exceedingly well-endowed with the potential of fore-sight.
The stimulus of "excitement".
When we are trapped by chronic pressures upon our well-being.
A review of the mechanisms of physical stress.
When we are "exposed", without protection, to environmental conditions.
Hypo-thermia and frost-bite.
Getting out of the way of stressful conditions and circumstances.
The different phases of stress-resistance.
Adaptations to long-term forms of stress.
Basic chores to maintain existence become ever more stressful at an advanced age.
Dying; seen in terms of stress and stress-resistance.
There is no clear-cut distinction between ageing and disease.
As we grow older, nearly all organs and functional systems are affected, to some extent, by one disease process or another.
Dying does not have to be a stressful event.
Dying on the battle-field.
When we have the fortunate ability to age gracefully, without severe regrets.
When we have a comfortable place of our own.
Living every day to the fullest.
A personal note.

Let us remind ourselves, that the living system is essentially fluid in nature, and, that it has the ability to "flow around" obstacles. This means, that it can avoid obstacles passively, such as a flow of water around a boulder, or, it can avoid obstacles actively, e.g., when an animal searches for the most advantageous ways to obtain its food. A "fluid system" has the advantage, that it can avoid many forms of stress by flowing around it, or away from it. A rigid and immobile system can not do this, and fluidity is, therefore, a major factor in the adaptation to, or avoidance of, stress. As long as the fluid, living organism can avoid physical contacts and collisions, (with the help of general and special sense-organs) the fluidity and mobility of an organism represent a great help in the adaptation to stress, but, as soon as a living organism is "caught", and tries to resist stress with the strength of its own body, the organism is at a great disadvantage, compared to a rigid, inorganic system of existence.

We have seen, how the elaboration of sensory mechanisms leads, eventually, in the human species, to the ability to form a conscious perception of reality; with all the problems of anxieties, tensions and disappointments that are inevitably associated with this faculty. However, let us not forget, that the "purpose" of natural selection is to equip the organism, here, the human being, with useful tools and viable behaviour-patterns. Indeed, the "psychological", or sense-related mechanisms of perception, try to provide the human being with an adequate basis of information to formulate the best possible and most viable response under the circumstances, and, the conscious perception of reality has become such an important "tool", that a large part of our sense impressions is concerned with the deliberate adjustment of our reality experiences.

However, there are still many influences that can affect our physical existence without evoking a conscious awareness or response. For example, there are numerous agents, such as microbial organisms and toxins, pollutants and other harmful chemical substances, that can do their harmful work totally unnoticed. We can only experience the symptons of some sort of an illness, and, it does not take long, when reviewing the history of mankind, to appreciate, how recently we have begun to "sense", or detect and unravel, many of these mechanisms of interference and harm.

These mechanisms are also important incidences of stress, because they drive an organism away from its optimum or comfortable equilibrium. However, we are beginning to get a grip on these problems. With tools, we have been able to enlarge the sphere of our reality perceptions beyond anything nature has made possible before, and, we can now detect many of these forces, substances or living organisms, before they do great harm. This allows us to devise an evasive course of action; either, by getting-away from harmful agents, or, by mounting a thorough clean-up and remove such dangers. We have learned much about the way these agents do their harmful work, and, the art of medical diagnosis and treatment has accomplished a great deal, and has been able to minimise the damages to our body and mind, restoring, often, a state of health, or, at least, a state of approximate normality.

The point we want to make, here, is the fact, that we are an organism that is exceedingly well-endowed with the ability to see and recognise all sorts of factors, happenings and events that may lead to harm, or, which may indicate the possibility of harmful effects in the near future. Therefore, by far the most important approach to the problems of stress, is the ability to anticipate stress and avoid it. Yet, as we have seen, a state of constant vigilance is already a form of chronic stress in itself, but, it is probably the best example of the concept, that we need a certain amount of stress to keep alert and in a good state of health.

Under normal conditions, where people have not been weakened by a long-standing attitude of self-indulgence and the absence of useful forms of stress, we see no difficulties in coping with this chronic stress of vigilance. Let us not forget, that it is normal for healthy and confident people, especially, when they are young, to actively search for the "excitement" and chronic stress of anticipating and avoiding dangers. This keeps them active, keen and alert, and, it sharpens their ability to foresee and cope with dangerous, or potentially dangerous and stressful situations.

However, sooner or later, any living organism will be caught in a situation of stress, where it can not completely avoid the stress by just moving out of the way. Sooner or later, we are all caught into some sort of a trap. Often, this is a trap of our own making, because we made a miscalculation, or, we failed to recognise a harmful effect in time. Now, we are "paying for it". It may, literally, be a question of "paying for it", if we lose a certain amount of money on account of our failure to anticipate the outcome of a business deal correctly.

However, the trap may be a chronic pressure from which we can not easily escape. We may have done something wrong, and, we are trying to cover-up. All these acts amount to a chronic stress, because we feel trapped. We feel, that others could harm us by reporting what we have done, and, we try to safeguard against such a development by finding-out wrong-doings or less desirable facts about the people, who know about us. This type of entanglement may take many forms and ranges all the way from criminal activities, which are anxiously hidden from the law, to emotional entanglements between the members of a tightly-knit family.

Stress can also be mainly physical. It can be an illness, due to a microbial or viral invasion, or, the action of a poison. Or, it may be a rather sudden mechanical stress, such as an accident, or, it may be a "chemical accident", when we come suddenly into contact with a corrosive or caustic agent, or, the horrible stress of thermal injuries, or burns.

In the actions of physical stress upon a living organism, we see an initial "yielding" phase. If someone pulls a leg or an arm, we can, initially, give-way, because of the elasticity of the tissues, or, because of the fact that we could still move a litte ways into the direction of the force. Soon, however, the stretch has been "used up", and the tissues start to resist a distorting force. This is the most painful phase of stress, where resistance to the distorting force is reaching a maximum, and, we experience excruciating pain; to the point of physical and mental exhaustion, as we try, desperately, to resist a further deformation of the body by the stressful force.

Of course, it does not have to be an actual mechanical deformation, as we see in physical injuries, but, it may be due to the fact, that we have become exposed to a hostile environment, and, we may have insufficient protection, or means, to ward-off the harmful force of this environmental stress. For example, if we camp-out in the open on a cool or freezing night, we will suffer no ill-effects, as long as we have adequate protective clothing or blankets to avoid a serious loss of heat. However, as soon as we lose this protective cover, we are "exposed" to the serious stress of chronic heat loss, and, it depends upon the circumstances, whether or not we can cope with it.

If we are healthy and young, and, if we have enough food to keep our energies up, and, if can find a place out of the wind; if we can huddle together or stay around a small camp-fire, or, if we can keep moving to increase the production of body heat, and, if the night is short and the sun will soon warm us again, we may be able to resist this stress without ill effects.

However, if we are exhausted after a long climb, have lost our food or the ability to make a fire, or, if we are lost and are not likely to be found soon, we will quickly reach the end of our abilities to withstand the stress of exposure. Some parts of the body will suffer frost-bite, or, we start to feel sleepy, and we begin to "give-in" to a further cooling-off of the body. Then, we are losing the battle against the stressful forces.

We give way, more and more, easing some of the pain, the anxiety, the exhaustion, and the struggle that are associated with stress resistance, but, we are also losing the battle for survival. Soon, we will slide into a situation, where our body is not able to maintain the life-processes, because a severe loss of body heat leads to cardiac irregularities, and, eventually, to a cessation of the heart-beat. However, the extreme lowering of the body temperature is also a protection against the damaging effects of a lack of oxygen, and, this is the reason, why some people who have apparently been frozen to death, may make a spectacular recovery, after their heart-beat has been restored in hospital.

Let us not pursue, here, these fascinating stories, because we want to emphasise the various phases of the experience of stress. We have seen, that the first phase, which is the most important and most productive way of coping with impending stress, is the avoidance of stress by seeking an alternative route, pathway or mode of existence. etc. Especially, the behaviourally flexible animals have developed the defense of "getting out of the way", or, "the flight", as the result of nature's need to protect its living systems from rapidly changing circumstances. Another example of "fluidity", is the ability to switch to alternate sources of energy. Obviously, an animal species that can use a wide range of foods is more likely to survive under fluctuating circumstances compared to a species that has become dependent upon a highly specific type of food.

The next phase of stress is the gradually mounting resistance to the stressful force. This phase begins, as soon as the avoidance or yielding phase is not available anymore, and the organism has been trapped into one or other stressful situation. The stress may be mild and easily resisted, but, it may also become life-threatening, where the organism is exhausting all its energies to resist stress and avoid being "torn-apart". Finally, the breaking point is reached; then, the organism gives-way again, but, now with the incurrence of some sort of injury; with the loss of anatomical or functional integrity, which is often fatal.

In the case of a bullet ripping through a part of the body, the phases of building resistance, the breaking point, followed by the phase of "giving-way", or tearing-apart, occur, of course, nearly simultaneously, within a minute fraction of a second. The question, whether the sustained injuries are lethal or not, depends on the site, the extent and the severity of the injuries, as well as on the medical care given immediately after such an injury has been sustained.

On the other hand, we see, that people, who have been imprisoned may be under a relatively mild stress for a long period of time, but, at any time, something may happen that increases the stress to the point that life is lost. A trifling incident may lead to torture or arbitrary execution, if we are dealing with an unscrupulous regime, but sometimes, psychologically clever adaptations, as well as a keen eye for the possibilities of contact between captors and captured, may make the circumstances bearable for the political prisoner or the prisoner of war, as well as easier for those, who have the responsibility of guarding these prisoners.

Let us return to the ageing individual, and, we see, that, indeed, the ability of the body to withstand the stresses of daily existence, are diminishing all the time. Eventually, the point is reached, where a series of disease processes and degenerative physical changes, make it difficult to carry-out "basic maintenance chores", such as getting-up and getting dressed, walking down a flight of stairs, or, preparing a meal, cleaning a house, etc., etc. All these chores may become so difficult, that they can not be carried-out without help or special precautions to ease the stress of carrying-out the necessary activities. Technical aids can be very helpful to ease the burdens of looking after oneself, but, it is always possible, that the frailty of body or mind progresses to the stage, that constant supervision becomes necessary. However, many elderly people are fortunate, and, they will find their death, before they have become so crippled or debilitated, that they require permanent care in a hospital or nursing home.

The process of dying can also be defined in terms of stress and stress-resistance. We have seen, how numerous factors may produce temporary or permanent defects in the structure and function of the body, and, even, if people escape most of the serious illnesses that can effect them throughout their life-span, and, even if people are able to live a healthy, frugal and regular life-style with its comforting routine, we still see, that the body ages, and, that its resistance to stressful influences is constantly diminishing.

There is no clear-cut distinction between the processes of ageing and disease, since many diseases occur so slowly and insideously, that they may affect our body without any awareness that they are taking place. For example, the disease processes that are grouped-together under the term "hardening of the ateries" occur, often, so gradually and so imperceptibly, that we may be suffering from an advanced degree of arteriosclerosis without knowing it, and, without having sought medical advice for any specific set of symptoms or complaints.

As we grow older, nearly all the organs and functional systems are affected to some extent by one disease process or another, but, just as is the case with the moment of break-down in the family car, it will be the break-down of a vital organ or function, which will usher-in the irreversible sequence of death and decay, while many of the organs give, at least, the appearance, that they could have lasted for a few more years.

Is death always a highly stressful event? Certainly not. If we are "taken-away", when physically and mentally healthy, such as in an accident, on the battle-fields, or, in another type of accident or specific disease process, we do not feel ready to die, and, we are likely to struggle against the stress that may be overwhelming us. Sometimes, the fatal injuries of a car accident may come, instantenously, without any warning, and, perhaps, with an anticipation that lasts only a fraction of a second. Then, there will be little time to resist the injuries as they occur, and, it depends on the status of the body, as well as the care it receives after the stressful factors have ceased to exist, whether or not this particular organism will survive.

When fighting on the battle-fields, the situation is somewhat similar, and, the actual moment of being hit by an explosion or machine-gun fire, is unpredictable, and un-anticipated, but, throughout the period of fighting, the individual has to adjust, mentally and physically, to the severe but chronic stress involved in engaging in a battle. This stress is partly physical, because war activities are often extremely tiring, but, at the same time, this fatigue, together with the constant need to be highly alert in order to survive, dulls, to some extent, the chronic anxieties and the realistic anticipation, that it may all end suddenly, if a bullet or a shell happens to make a direct hit on the location, where we happen to be.

If we have the good fortune to age gracefully, without severe regrets or rancor, we may accept, also, with a measure of resignation the processes of mental and physical decay as they happen to affect us, while enjoying the fruits of fore-sight that enabled us to age in a well-protected environment. If we have a comfortable place of our own, without chronic anxieties about financial security; if we can live quietly in a way that agrees with us, and conforms, at least, to some extent, to the ideals we have set for ourselves, we are lucky, because we can, then, exist in a relaxed and healthy atmosphere. Then, in spite of financial and physical limitations, and, in spite of the fact, that it is impossible to begin a whole new career, such healthy and relaxed people are often remarkably productive, in spite of their advancing age.

Under such fortunate conditions of a healthy and comfortable "old-age", there is no chronic stress to hamper productivity and there is no chronic doubt about the missed chances of the past, or the unfulfilled dreams of the future. Finally, life is being accepted as it presents itself from day today, and, long-term ambitions have receded far-away and are being replaced with a quietly tenacious resolution to live every day to the fullest.

For some people, like me, to live each day to the fullest, does not mean to live a consumptive life, but, to use every day of health and vigour to work at the tasks I have set for myself. Every day, I try to do my best, and, every day, again, I try to write, correct, think, or compose, in the best way I know. Certainly, even, this is not free from stress, as a keen and alert mind can not help, but wonder, at times, whether or not all these efforts are worthwhile; whether or not these writings will ever be of any value to someone else. But, then, such stresses are so minor and the knowledge, whether or not I will be of relevance to others, is so unimportant, that I can laugh-off such worries as ridiculous.

Indeed, does it really matter, whether or not my works will find acceptance? I am fortunate to be able to live a healthy life-style, almost entirely free from stress, yet productive, and, hopefully, with enough self-criticisms and tenacious endurance to do better and better. This means, that I am utilising my limited abilities to withstand stress, to be useful and productive, in the hope, that, at some time in the future, my works will be of some interest to other people.

.......

Summary

1. It takes both partners in a situation of conflict to negotiate a settlement.
   A negotiated settlement tends to reflect a balance of powers.
   A field of "vectors".
   The ability to settle for less than was hoped for, or considered fair.
   When rivals are nearly evenly matched.
   Different conflicts have varying intensities.
   When the goal is dominance, rather than conquest or exploitation.
   Intense rivalries can only be controled by a superior power.
   Forces that play a role in the existence of, and inter-actions between, organisational systems.
   A wide-ranging discussion.
   We are always dealing with matter and energy, and the forces that relate the various forms of matter-energy to each other.
   Radiating and locked-up forms of matter-energy.
   A brief review of living and non-living organisational systems.
   A complementary conglomerate of socially integrated components enhances the potential for existence.
   A strong "centripetal force", or existential need, lies behind the maintenance of such an integrated conglomerate.
   A threshold energy-input for inter-actions between, or transformations of, non-living systems.
   Inter-actions between radiant and orbital forms of energy.
   Living and non-living systems contain the same atomic elements.
   Organic combinations or organisations of various elements acquire the quality of "fragility"; not the elements themselves.
   Gravitational, mechanical, thermal, chemical, electro-static and electro-magnetic force-fields.
   The electro-magnetic spectrum of radiating wave-fronts.
   Together, all these disruptive displacement-forces are called "stress".
   Stress may come from external or internal force-fields.
   
   
   
2. A cascading flow of energy; a "water-fall" of excited electrons.
   The essence of the mechanisms of "socialisation", or social integration.
   The feature of inter-dependence.
   The element of competitive drive is never far from the surface, even in socially integrated forms of existence.
   Specialisations in function.
   A review of the mechanisms of competitive strife, which are not limited to the living organisation.
   Growing and starving rivulets.
   The phenomenon of "proto-bioluminescence".
   When the river-bed is "soft".
   A preferential flow through large channels of energy-dissipation, because they offer less resistance.
   The transition from competitive strife to predatory behaviour-patterns.
   Why there is no "natural death" for a single cell.
   An absence of ageing processes.
   Mitotic division spells the end of the existence of a single cell.
   The arms-race of nature.
   A search for viability.
   A successful form of predatorial behaviour.
   All animals are predators.
   Competitive strife between vegetative life-forms.
   The human being is a complex, multi-cellular animal.
   We are heir to the developments of competitive strife and predation, but, also, to behavioural flexibility and symbiosis.
   Structures of belief, and the perception of reality.
   The forces that tend to drive us away from a comfortable "optimum equilibrium".
   
   
   
3. The cell; its goals, and the conditions of an optimum equilibrium.
   The flow of energy through the cellular protoplasm.
   A basic, maintenance-energy to keep the organisation of life intact.
   Surplus energies.
   A declining efficiency, as the supply of energy becomes more abundant.
   A gradual transition between growth and reproduction.
   Why there is an essential "instability" in the organisation of life.
   An early example of "polarisation".
   A continuous cycle of growth and division.
   An equilibrium between growth-pressures and counter-acting force-fields from the environment.
   A balance between "births and deaths".
   A rapid "flow-through" of individuals.
   An ideal environment for the forces of natural selection.
   A multi-cellular organism has to be built from a single fertilised egg-cell.
   The mitotic reconstruction of a multi-cellular embryo.
   A reliance upon "the hunt".
   The complex search for a possibility to exist.
   An optimum equilibrium for human existence.
   A tight correlation between mental and physical requirements for the normal development of a youngster.
   Limits to the demands for attention and gratification.
   Growing-up under relatively stable circumstances.
   Learning the principles of common-sense from an early age.
   The advantage of "being average".
   
   
   
4. Rating the environmental stimuli for a youngster.
   Why the outcome of a personality development is still difficult to predict.
   The "pluri-potentiality" of a young child.
   The draw-backs of a poorly balanced personality development.
   Finding a place in the social environment.
   A widening gap between performance and ambition.
   An increase in the complexity of goal-patterns.
   The tendency to consolidate during maturity.
   When we are "over the hill".
   Learning to manage the level of stress we have to cope with.
   There are many forms of stress.
   When the cerebral computer program still has to be written.
   A gradual development of the faculty of conscious awareness.
   Unfolding the faculty of speech.
   Defining alertness.
   Is the infant "less human"?
   An infant is exposed to different forms of stress, compared to an older child.
   The perception of "pain".
   When crying is still a "reflex behaviour-pattern", rather than an expression of "suffering".
   The origins of "psychological stress".
   All behavioural reactions involving the "software program" of the cerebral computer are psychological in nature.
   A helpful summary of the nature of human existence.
   The development of the young infant.
   The first evidence for psychological mechanisms.
   Patterns of recognition.
   Defining the experience of "frustration".
   We show an essentially "blind" search for as much gratification or attention as we can get.
   The need to become aware of limits and limitations.
   The "temper tantrum".
   
   
   
5. The behaviour of sensible parents.
   Establishing a stable and comforting routine.
   An atmosphere of steadfastness, reliability and security.
   The attitude of "over-attention".
   Mechanisms of "natural wisdom".
   The detrimental consequences of "poverty".
   The need for a constant stream of mental stimuli.
   The difference between "stimulating" and "stressful" conditions.
   A look at the best conditions for developing the potential of behavioural flexibility.
   When social limits of tolerance are "soft".
   The ability to recognise and avoid obstacles.
   When the social environment is "too restrictive".
   A vague and elusive balance between stimulating and restraining factors.
   A review of the development of the human personality.
   When the demands and expectations of the social environment become a burden.
   When people "soar" in their career.
   The average personality.
   Great Expectations.
   We are fortunate, when we can enter adolescence with a large number of dreams and expectations.
   The final "crystallisation" of the personality.
   Remaining flexible for as long as we can.
   
   
   
6. The "neurotic blockage".
   Later, we may understand the reasons, why we failed.
   When collective frustrations, or "taboos", become "the norm".
   The neurotic suppression of unpleasant experiences.
   Delusions and obsessions.
   We all vary in the way we interpret reality.
   Vague boundaries between normal and abnormal perceptions of reality.
   A reality perception that "does not make sense" to the social surroundings, is, by definition, "mentally diseased".
   The perception of reality is a complex phenomenon.
   The function of a persistent "bias" in the interpretation of our sense impressions.
   When there is a break-down in the perception of reality.
   The phenomenon of a psychological "rejection".
   Ambivalent attitudes towards handicapped off-spring.
   The concepts of individual and social health, normality and disease touch upon each other in a confusing manner.
   Learning to live with disappointments.
   A continuous exposure to stressful conditions.
   We become more "seasoned", as we get older.
   Avoiding a cynical and socially destructive attitude.
   The fine line between realism and opportunism.
   Retaining a quiet faith in the forces of "goodness".
   A psychological shield of ambitions and long-term expectations.
   The possibilities for "becoming" are falling-away, one by one.
   When we are becoming irrelevant to our social surroundings.
   How to regain a measure of productivity.
   The limitations of a strenuous life-style.
   The many forms of chronic stress in a modern, affluent society.
   
   
   
7. Psychological adaptations to stress that are likely to occur at a more advanced age.
   Accepting the inevitable decline in mental and physical powers.
   When we are locked into fruitless anxieties.
   Why depending on a high level of consumption is a weakness.
   Appreciating the time we have left.
   The crucial ability to anticipate future trends accurately.
   A patient and rational aproach to the inevitability of our own life-cycle.
   A natural insight of wisdom and resignation.
   Stressful attempts to "overcome" our problems, rather than to accept death gracefully.
   The lure of eternal happiness is bought at the price of a life-long anxiety, that we "may not make it".
   When we misuse the faculties of fore-sight.
   With every gain in viability, there are always potential liabilities.
   The inevitability of death and the likelyhood of suffering are a natural result of our ability to construct a sophisticated and wide-ranging reality perception.
   Everything becomes a burden for weak and degenerate minds.
   The life-cycle of a social entity, or an entire species.
   
   
   
8. The ability to "flow" around obstacles.
   The essence of "fluidity".
   Sensory mechanisms.
   For some forms of stress we have not developed "sensory capabilities".
   The nature of a comfortable equilibrium.
   We are exceedingly well-endowed with the potential of fore-sight.
   The stimulus of "excitement".
   When we are trapped by chronic pressures upon our well-being.
   A review of the mechanisms of physical stress.
   When we are "exposed", without protection, to environmental conditions.
   Hypo-thermia and frost-bite.
   Getting out of the way of stressful conditions and circumstances.
   The different phases of stress-resistance.
   Adaptations to long-term forms of stress.
   Basic chores to maintain existence become ever more stressful at an advanced age.
   Dying; seen in terms of stress and stress-resistance.
   There is no clear-cut distinction between ageing and disease.
   As we grow older, nearly all organs and functional systems are affected, to some extent, by one disease process or another.
   Dying does not have to be a stressful event.
   Dying on the battle-field.
   When we have the fortunate ability to age gracefully, without severe regrets.
   When we have a comfortable place of our own.
   Living every day to the fullest.
   A personal note.

.......